Cell-permeable probes for identification and imaging of sialidases

ABSTRACT

Provided herein are novel irreversible sialidase inhibitors. These compounds can be conjugated with a detectable tagging moiety such as azide-annexed biotin via CuAAC for isolation and identification of sialidases. The provided compounds and the corresponding detectable conjugates are useful for detecting sialidase-containing pathogens and imaging in situ sialidase activities under physiological conditions.

TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to the field of sialidase diagnosis and imaging. Specifically, the invention relates to target-specific compounds that irreversibly bind viral, bacterial, and mammalian sialidases. More specifically, the invention relates to compounds that covalently bind to active sites of sialidases and are useful for diagnostic and therapeutic functions.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Sialidase, also called neuraminidase (NA), is an exo-glycosidase that catalyzes the hydrolysis of terminal sialic acid residues from the oligosaccharides of glycoconjugates. Sialidases are widely expressed for various functions. (R. K. Y. M. Saito, Biochemistry and function of sialidases, Plenum Press: New York, 1995.) Many pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, and protozoa, produce sialidases for invasion, nutrition, detachment, and immunological escape. (E. Severi, et al. Microbiology 2007, 153, 2817)

Mammalian sialidases also have been implicated in many biological processes, including regulation of cell proliferation/differentiation, modulation of cell adhesion, metabolism, and immunological functions. (T. Angata and A. Varki, Chem. Rev. 2002, 102, 439. A. Varki, Nature 2007, 446, 1023.) Four types of sialidases have been identified and characterized in mammalians. These sialidases are encoded by different genes and expressed at different intracellular locations as lysosomal (Neu1), cytosolic (Neu2), plasma-membrane (Neu3), and mitochondriallysosomal (Neu4) enzymes. Although these enzymes share a common mechanism of actions, they have little overlapped functions, probably due to differences in subcellular distribution, pH optimum, kinetic properties, and substrate specificities. (T. Miyagi and K. Yamaguchi, Glycobiology 2012, 22, 880.) The regulation and detailed functions of these enzymes are largely undefined. (E. Monti, et al. Adv. Carbohydr. Chem. Biochem. 2010, 64, 403.)

Alterations in sialidase activities have been implicated in different diseases. For example, elevated sialidase activities have been reported in BHK-transformed cells and in human breastcolon cancer tissues. (C. L. Schengrund, et al. J. Biol. Chem. 1972, 247, 2742. H. B. Bosmann and T. C. Hall, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1974, 71, 1833.) Animal studies also suggest the roles of sialidases in tumorigenic transformation and tumor invasion. Biochemical characterizations of mammalian sialidases suggest that increases in Neu3 are involved in colon, renal, and prostate cancers. Transfection of the Neu3 gene into cancer cells leads to protection against apoptosis by increased Bcl-2 expression and decreased activity of caspase-3/-9. (T. Miyagi, Proc. Jpn. Acad. Ser. B Phys Biol. Sci. 2008, 84, 407.)

Furthermore, Neu3 overexpression increases cell motility and invasion by modulation of EGF receptor phosphorylation and Ras activation. (T. Wada, et al. Oncogene 2007, 26, 2483. T. Miyagi, et al. J. Biochem. 2008, 144, 279.) In contrast to the apparent Neu3 promotion in cancer progressions, other sialidases play roles in cancer reduction through accelerated cell apoptosis, differentiation, and suppression of cell invasion. (T. Miyagi, et al. Glycoconj. J. 2004, 20, 189.)

In other aspects, deficiency of the lysosomal sialidase (Neu1) is considered as a major cause for sialidosis, which is an inherited lysosomal storage disease resulting in excessive accumulation of sialylglycoconjugates and development of progressive neurosomatic manifestations. (G. H. Thomas, Disorders of Glycoprotein Degradation: α-Mannosidosis, β-Mannosidosis, Fucosidosis, and Sialidosis, 8 ed., McGraw-Hill: New York, 2001.)

Activity-based protein profiling (ABPP) is a functional proteomic technology that uses chemical probes for specific enzymes. (M. J. Evans and B. F. Cravatt, Chem. Rev. 2006, 106, 3279.) An ABPP probe is typically composed of two elements: a reactive group and a tag. The reactive group is designed based on the catalytic mechanism of the target enzyme, and it usually contains an electrophile that can covalently link to nucleophilic residues in the enzyme active site. The tag may be either a reporter such as a fluorophore or an affinity label such as biotin. The tag can incorporate an alkyne or azide moiety for subsequent modification by the Cu(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne [3+2] cycloaddition (CuAAC) to introduce a reporter. (V. V. Rostovtsev, et al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2002, 41, 2596. H. C. Kolb and K. B. Sharpless, Drug Discov Today 2003, 8, 1128.)

ABPP probes can be useful tools to monitor specific enzyme changes in association with certain biological states, such as cancerous status, and responses to stimulants. ABPP probes have been developed for many enzyme classes, including serine hydrolases (Y. Liu, et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1999, 96, 14694. D. Kidd, et al. Biochemistry 2001, 40, 4005), cysteine proteases (D. Greenbaum, et al. Mol. Cell. Proteomics 2002, 20, 60), protein phosphatases (C. Walls, et al. Methods Mol. Biol. 2009, 519, 417. K. A. Kalesh, et al. Chem. Commun. 2010, 46, 589), oxidoreductases (G. C. Adam, et al. Nat. Biotechnol. 2002, 20, 805), histone deacetylases (C. M. Salisbury and B. F. Cravatt, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2007, 104, 1171), kinases (M. P. Patricelli, et al. Biochemistry 2007, 46, 350), metalloproteases (S. A. Sieber, et al. Nat. Chem. Biol. 2006, 2, 274), and glycosidases. (C. S. Tsai, et al. Org. Lett. 2002, 4, 3607. D. J. Vocadlo and C. R. Bertozzi, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2004, 43, 5338. K. A. Stubbs, et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 327. M. D. Witte, et al. Nat. Chem. Biol. 2010, 6, 907.)

Two types of sialidase ABPP probes, the quinone methide and the photoaffinity labeling probes have been reported. (G. T. van der Horst, et al. J. Biol. Chem. 1990, 265, 10801. C. P. Lu, et al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2005, 44, 6888. R. Kannappan, et al. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2008, 31, 352.) These probes often have problems in non-specific labeling when used in complex protein samples, such as cell lysates. In addition, these probes cannot be applied to in situ labeling experiments because they are impermeable to cell membranes.

For sialidase profiling under physiological conditions, target-specific and cell-permeable ABPP probes are needed to study sialidase changes in living cells. Recently, Withers and coworkers have used 3-fluorosialyl fluoride as an effective inhibitor against Trypanosoma cruzi trans-sialidase (TcTs). (A. G. Watts, et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 7532. S. Buchini, et al. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2008, 47, 2700.)

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Disclosed herein are mechanism-based irreversible sialidase inhibitors (alkyne-hinged 3-fluorosialyl fluoride compounds such as DFSA) which function by trapping a 3-fluorosialylenzyme intermediate (reporter-inhibitor-enzyme conjugate). These sialidase inhibitors can be conjugated with a detectable tagging moiety for isolation and identification of sialidases. Also provided are ester-protected versions of sialidase inhibitors (such as PDFSA) useful as the cell permeable precursor of sialidase inhibitors to allow cell uptake, identification and imaging in situ of sialidase activities under physiological conditions.

In one aspect, the present disclosure provides novel irreversible sialidase inhibitors of formula (I):

or a salt thereof,

wherein

-   -   F atom at the C3-position is axial or equatorial;     -   R¹ is H or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl;     -   R² is OR^(2O), N₃, N(R^(2N))₂, or guanidine;     -   each instance of R^(2O) is independently hydrogen, optionally         substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an         oxygen protecting group;     -   each instance of R^(2N) is independently hydrogen, optionally         substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or a         nitrogen protecting group;     -   each instance of R^(3a) and R^(3b) is independently hydrogen,         —C(═O)—R^(3r), or an oxygen protecting group;     -   each instance of R^(3r) is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl,         optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl,         or optionally substituted heterocycle, optionally substituted         alkylaryl, optionally substituted alkylheteroaryl, or optionally         substituted alkylheterocycle;     -   X is selected from the group consisting of —O—, —O(C═O)—, —NH—,         —NH(C═O)—, —(C═O)NH—, —O(C═O)NH—, —O(C═S)NH—, —NH(C═O)NH—, and         —NH(C═S)NH—;     -   R⁴ is H, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or -L-Z;     -   Y is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl or -L-Z;     -   each instance of L is independently selected from the group         consisting of —(CH₂)_(n)—, —(CH₂)_(n)C═O—, —(CH₂)_(n)NH—,         —(C═O)(CH₂)_(n)—, —(CH₂)_(n)NH(C═O)—, —(C═O)(CH₂)_(n)NH(C═O)—,         —(CH₂)_(n)SCH₂(C═O)—, and —(CH₂CH₂O)_(n);     -   each instance of n is an integer from 1 to 8, inclusive;     -   each instance of Z is a functional group for further ligation;         and     -   provided that the compound is not of the formula

In some embodiments of formula (I), Z is optionally substituted alkyne, optionally substituted alkene, halogen, —N₃, N(R^(N))₂, OR^(O), SR^(S), or CO₂R^(O); wherein each instance of R^(N) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or a nitrogen protecting group; each instance of R^(O) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and each instance of R^(S) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or a sulfur protecting group.

In some embodiments, the compounds of formula (I) are of formula (II-a):

or a salt thereof,

wherein R^(3c) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula (I) of formula (II-b):

or a salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula (I) of formula (II-b1):

or a salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula (I) of formula (II-b2):

or a salt thereof,

wherein R^(y1) is hydrogen or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula (I) of formula (II-b3):

or a salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula (I) of formula (II-c):

or a salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula (I) of formula (II-c1):

or a salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula (I) of formula (II-c2):

or a salt thereof,

wherein R^(y2) is hydrogen or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula (I) of formula (II-c3):

or a salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the compounds of formula (I) are of formula (II):

wherein F atom at the C3-position can locate on either axial or equatorial directions; R¹ comprises straight-chain or branched alkyl (C1-C6); each instance of R³ is selected from the group consisting of H and acyl group comprising acetyl (CH₃CO), propanoyl (C₂H₅CO), butanoyl (C₃H₇CO), pivaloyl (t-BuCO), trifluoroacetyl (CF₃CO), phenylacetyl (PhCH₂CO), benzoyl (C₆H₅CO), and (substituted)benzoyl; Y is selected from the group consisting of CH₃, CF₃, and a moiety L-Z wherein L is a linker and Z is a terminal functional group for further ligation; L is a linking group comprising 1-12 carbon atoms and/or 0-5 heteroatoms selected from N, O and S, selected from the group consisting of —(CH₂)_(n)—, —(CH₂)_(n)C═O, —(CH₂)_(n)NH, —(C═O)(CH₂)_(n), —(CH₂)_(n)NH(C═O), —(C═O)(CH₂)_(n)NH(C═O), —(CH₂)_(n)SCH₂(C═O), or —(CH₂CH₂O)_(n)—; and n is an integer from 1 to 8; and Z represents any functional group for further ligation. In certain embodiments, Z is selected from the group consisting of alkyne (HC≡C), alkene (H₂C═CH), halo (Cl, Br, I), azide (N₃), amine (NH₂), hydroxyl (OH), thiol (SH), carbonyl (C═O), and carboxyl (CO₂H) groups; provided wherein: H at R¹, H at R³, and CH₃ at Y are not simultaneously present in a compound of formula (II).

In another embodiment, the compound of formula (I) is a compound of formula (V):

wherein F atom at the C3-position can locate on either axial or equatorial directions; R¹ comprises straight-chain or branched alkyl (C1-C6); R³ is selected from the group consisting of H and acyl group comprising acetyl (CH₃CO), propanoyl (C₂H₅CO), butanoyl (C₃H₇CO), pivaloyl (t-BuCO), trifluoroacetyl (CF₃CO), phenylacetyl (PhCH₂CO), benzoyl (C₆H₅CO), and (substituted)benzoyl; X is selected from the group consisting of —O, —O(C═O), —NH, —NH(C═O), —O(C═O)NH, —O(C═S)NH, —NH(C═O)NH, and —NH(C═S)NH; R⁴ is selected from the group consisting of H, alkyl (C1-C6), and a moiety L-Z wherein L is a linker and Z is a terminal functional group for further ligation; L is a linking group comprising 1-12 carbon atoms and/or 0-5 heteroatoms selected from N, O and S, selected from the group consisting of —(CH₂)_(n)—, —(CH₂)_(n)C═O, —(CH₂)_(n)NH, —(C═O)(CH₂)_(n), —(CH₂)_(n)NH(C═O), —(C═O)(CH₂)_(n)NH(C═O), —(CH₂)_(n)SCH₂(C═O), or —(CH₂CH₂O)_(n)—; and n is an integer from 1 to 8; and Z represents any functional group for further ligation. In certain embodiments, Z is selected from the group consisting of alkyne (HC≡C), alkene (H₂C═CH), halo (Cl, Br, I), azide (N₃), amine (NH₂), hydroxyl (OH), thiol (SH), carbonyl (C═O), and carboxyl (CO₂H) groups; provided wherein: H at R¹, H at R³, O at X, and H at R⁴ are not simultaneously present in a compound of formula (V).

Exemplary sialidase inhibitors are of the following formulae:

The invention relates to detectable conjugates comprising a compound of formula (I), (II-a), (II-b), (II-b1), (II-b2), (II-b3), (II-c), (II-c1), (II-c2), (II-c3), or (II)-(IX), with the compound covalently conjugated to a detectable tagging moiety. In certain embodiments, the detectable tagging moiety comprises a reporter group or a label. In certain embodiments, the label is azido-annexed biotin (azido-biotin).

The present disclosure relates to sialidase protein adducts comprising a compound of formula (I), (II-a), (II-b), (II-b1), (II-b2), (II-b3), (II-c), (II-c1), (II-c2), (II-c3), or (II)-(IX), or a detectable conjugate. In certain embodiments of the provided sialidase protein adducts, the sialidase protein is covalently conjugated to the compound or the detectable conjugate.

The present disclosure relates to synthetic sialidase inhibitors that form covalent adducts with virus, bacteria and human sialidases.

The invention relates to detection and imaging of the fluorosialylenzyme adducts. As an example, DFSA-5-yne bearing a terminal alkyne group is conjugated with an azido biotin via a Cu(I)-catalyzed [3+2] cycloaddition (Click reaction) and detected by the streptavidin specific reporting signals.

In some embodiments, DFSA-5-yne or DFSA-7-yne is used to diagnose oseltamivir susceptibility in influenza infections by competitively binding the influenza neuraminidase.

In some embodiments, PDFSA-5-yne or PDFSA-7-yne is used for imaging in situ of the changes of sialidase activity within live cells.

These and other aspects will become apparent from the following description of the preferred embodiment taken in conjunction with the following drawings, although variations and modifications therein may be affected without departing from the spirit and scope of the novel concepts of the disclosure.

DEFINITIONS

Definitions of specific functional groups and chemical terms are described in more detail below. The chemical elements are identified in accordance with the Periodic Table of the Elements, CAS version, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 75^(th) Ed., inside cover, and specific functional groups are generally defined as described therein. Additionally, general principles of organic chemistry, as well as specific functional moieties and reactivity, are described in Organic Chemistry, Thomas Sorrell, University Science Books, Sausalito, 1999; Smith and March March's Advanced Organic Chemistry, 5^(th) Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 2001; Larock, Comprehensive Organic Transformations, VCH Publishers, Inc., New York, 1989; and Carruthers, Some Modern Methods of Organic Synthesis, 3^(rd) Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1987.

Compounds described herein can comprise one or more asymmetric centers, and thus can exist in various stereoisomeric forms, e.g., enantiomers and/or diastereomers. For example, the compounds described herein can be in the form of an individual enantiomer, diastereomer or geometric isomer, or can be in the form of a mixture of stereoisomers, including racemic mixtures and mixtures enriched in one or more stereoisomer. Isomers can be isolated from mixtures by methods known to those skilled in the art, including chiral high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the formation and crystallization of chiral salts; or preferred isomers can be prepared by asymmetric syntheses. See, for example, Jacques et al., Enantiomers, Racemates and Resolutions (Wiley Interscience, New York, 1981); Wilen et al., Tetrahedron 33:2725 (1977); Eliel, E. L. Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds (McGraw-Hill, NY, 1962); and Wilen, S. H. Tables of Resolving Agents and Optical Resolutions p. 268 (E. L. Eliel, Ed., Univ. of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, Ind. 1972). The invention additionally encompasses compounds as individual isomers substantially free of other isomers, and alternatively, as mixtures of various isomers.

When a range of values is listed, it is intended to encompass each value and sub-range within the range. For example “C₁₋₆ alkyl” is intended to encompass, C₁, C₂, C₃, C₄, C₅, C₆, C₁₋₆, C₁₋₅, C₁₋₄, C₁₋₃, C₁₋₂, C₂₋₆, C₂₋₅, C₂₋₄, C₂₋₃, C₃₋₆, C₃₋₅, C₃₋₄, C₄₋₆, C₄₋₅, and C₅₋₆ alkyl.

The term “aliphatic,” as used herein, refers to alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, and carbocyclic groups. Likewise, the term “heteroaliphatic” as used herein, refers to heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, and heterocyclic groups.

As used herein, “alkyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain or branched saturated hydrocarbon group having from 1 to 10 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₁₀ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 9 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₉ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 8 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₈ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 7 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₇ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 6 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₆ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 5 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₅ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 4 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₄ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 3 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₃ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 2 carbon atoms (“C₁₋₂ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 carbon atom (“C₁ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₆ alkyl”). Examples of C₁₋₆ alkyl groups include methyl (C₁), ethyl (C₂), n-propyl (C₃), isopropyl (C₃), n-butyl (C₄), tert-butyl (C₄), sec-butyl (C₄), iso-butyl (C₄), n-pentyl (C₅), 3-pentanyl (C₅), amyl (C₅), neopentyl (C₅), 3-methyl-2-butanyl (C₅), tertiary amyl (C₅), and n-hexyl (C₆). Additional examples of alkyl groups include n-heptyl (C₇), n-octyl (C₈) and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted alkyl”) or substituted (a “substituted alkyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the alkyl group is an unsubstituted C₁₋₁₀ alkyl (e.g., —CH₃). In certain embodiments, the alkyl group is a substituted C₁₋₁₀ alkyl.

As used herein, “heteroalkyl” refers to an alkyl group as defined herein which further includes at least one heteroatom (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 heteroatoms) selected from oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur within (i.e., inserted between adjacent carbon atoms of) and/or placed at one or more terminal position(s) of the parent chain. In certain embodiments, a heteroalkyl group refers to a saturated group having from 1 to 10 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₁₋₁₀ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 9 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₁₋₉ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 8 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₁₋₈ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 7 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₁₋₇ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 6 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₁₋₆ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 5 carbon atoms and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₁₋₅ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 4 carbon atoms and for 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₁₋₄ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 3 carbon atoms and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC₁₋₃ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 2 carbon atoms and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC₁₋₂ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 carbon atom and 1 heteroatom (“heteroC₁ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 2 to 6 carbon atoms and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₆ alkyl”). Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a heteroalkyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heteroalkyl”) or substituted (a “substituted heteroalkyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkyl group is an unsubstituted heteroC₁₋₁₀ alkyl. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkyl group is a substituted heteroC₁₋₁₀ alkyl.

As used herein, “alkenyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain or branched hydrocarbon group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms and one or more carbon-carbon double bonds (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 double bonds). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₉ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₈ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₇ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₆ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₅ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₄ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₃ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 carbon atoms (“C₂ alkenyl”). The one or more carbon carbon double bonds can be internal (such as in 2-butenyl) or terminal (such as in 1-butenyl). Examples of C₂₋₄ alkenyl groups include ethenyl (C₂), 1-propenyl (C₃), 2-propenyl (C₃), 1-butenyl (C₄), 2-butenyl (C₄), butadienyl (C₄), and the like. Examples of C₂₋₆ alkenyl groups include the aforementioned C₂₋₄ alkenyl groups as well as pentenyl (C₅), pentadienyl (C₅), hexenyl (C₆), and the like. Additional examples of alkenyl include heptenyl (C₇), octenyl (C₈), octatrienyl (C₈), and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkenyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted alkenyl”) or substituted (a “substituted alkenyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the alkenyl group is an unsubstituted C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl. In certain embodiments, the alkenyl group is a substituted C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl.

As used herein, “heteroalkenyl” refers to an alkenyl group as defined herein which further includes at least one heteroatom (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 heteroatoms) selected from oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur within (i.e., inserted between adjacent carbon atoms of) and/or placed at one or more terminal position(s) of the parent chain. In certain embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group refers to a group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₁₀ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₉ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₈ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₇ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₆ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₅ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and for 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₄ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₃ alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₆ alkenyl”). Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a heteroalkenyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heteroalkenyl”) or substituted (a “substituted heteroalkenyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkenyl group is an unsubstituted heteroC₂₋₁₀ alkenyl. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkenyl group is a substituted heteroC₂₋₁₀ alkenyl.

As used herein, “alkynyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain or branched hydrocarbon group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms and one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 triple bonds) (“C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₉ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₈ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₇ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₆ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₅ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₄ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms (“C₂₋₃ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 carbon atoms (“C₂ alkynyl”). The one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds can be internal (such as in 2-butynyl) or terminal (such as in 1-butynyl). Examples of C₂₋₄ alkynyl groups include, without limitation, ethynyl (C₂), 1-propynyl (C₃), 2-propynyl (C₃), 1-butynyl (C₄), 2-butynyl (C₄), and the like. Examples of C₂₋₆ alkenyl groups include the aforementioned C₂₋₄ alkynyl groups as well as pentynyl (C₅), hexynyl (C₆), and the like. Additional examples of alkynyl include heptynyl (C₇), octynyl (C₈), and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkynyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted alkynyl”) or substituted (a “substituted alkynyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the alkynyl group is an unsubstituted C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl. In certain embodiments, the alkynyl group is a substituted C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl.

As used herein, “heteroalkynyl” refers to an alkynyl group as defined herein which further includes at least one heteroatom (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 heteroatoms) selected from oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur within (i.e., inserted between adjacent carbon atoms of) and/or placed at one or more terminal position(s) of the parent chain. In certain embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group refers to a group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₁₀ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₉ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₈ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₇ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₆ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₅ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and for 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₄ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₃ alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC₂₋₆ alkynyl”). Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a heteroalkynyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heteroalkynyl”) or substituted (a “substituted heteroalkynyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkynyl group is an unsubstituted heteroC₂₋₁₀ alkynyl. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkynyl group is a substituted heteroC₂₋₁₀ alkynyl.

As used herein, “carbocyclyl” or “carbocyclic” refers to a radical of a non aromatic cyclic hydrocarbon group having from 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl”) and zero heteroatoms in the nonaromatic ring system. In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 8 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₈ carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 7 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₇ carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₃₋₆ carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 4 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₄₋₆ carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 5 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₅₋₆ carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 5 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C₅₋₁₀ carbocyclyl”). Exemplary C₃₋₆ carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, cyclopropyl (C₃), cyclopropenyl (C₃), cyclobutyl (C₄), cyclobutenyl (C₄), cyclopentyl (C₅), cyclopentenyl (C₅), cyclohexyl (C₆), cyclohexenyl (C₆), cyclohexadienyl (C₆), and the like. Exemplary C₃₋₈ carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, the aforementioned C₃₋₆ carbocyclyl groups as well as cycloheptyl (C₇), cycloheptenyl (C₇), cycloheptadienyl (C₇), cycloheptatrienyl (C₇), cyclooctyl (C₈), cyclooctenyl (C₈), bicyclo[2.2.1]heptanyl (C₇), bicyclo[2.2.2]octanyl (C₈), and the like. Exemplary C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, the aforementioned C₃₋₈ carbocyclyl groups as well as cyclononyl (C₉), cyclononenyl (C₉), cyclodecyl (C₁₀), cyclodecenyl (C₁₀), octahydro-1H-indenyl (C₉), decahydronaphthalenyl (C₁₀), spiro[4.5]decanyl (C₁₀), and the like. As the foregoing examples illustrate, in certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is either monocyclic (“monocyclic carbocyclyl”) or polycyclic (e.g., containing a fused, bridged or spiro ring system such as a bicyclic system (“bicyclic carbocyclyl”) or tricyclic system (“tricyclic carbocyclyl”)) and can be saturated or can contain one or more carbon-carbon double or triple bonds. “Carbocyclyl” also includes ring systems wherein the carbocyclyl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl or heteroaryl groups wherein the point of attachment is on the carbocyclyl ring, and in such instances, the number of carbons continue to designate the number of carbons in the carbocyclic ring system. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a carbocyclyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted carbocyclyl”) or substituted (a “substituted carbocyclyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is an unsubstituted C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is a substituted C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl.

As used herein, “heterocyclyl” or “heterocyclic” refers to a radical of a 3- to 14 nonaromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1 to 4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“3-14 membered heterocyclyl”). In heterocyclyl groups that contain one or more nitrogen atoms, the point of attachment can be a carbon or nitrogen atom, as valency permits. A heterocyclyl group can either be monocyclic (“monocyclic heterocyclyl”) or polycyclic (e.g., a fused, bridged or spiro ring system such as a bicyclic system (“bicyclic heterocyclyl”) or tricyclic system (“tricyclic heterocyclyl”)), and can be saturated or can contain one or more carbon carbon double or triple bonds. Heterocyclyl polycyclic ring systems can include one or more heteroatoms in one or both rings. “Heterocyclyl” also includes ring systems wherein the heterocyclyl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl groups wherein the point of attachment is either on the carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl ring, or ring systems wherein the heterocyclyl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl or heteroaryl groups, wherein the point of attachment is on the heterocyclyl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members continue to designate the number of ring members in the heterocyclyl ring system. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of heterocyclyl is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heterocyclyl”) or substituted (a “substituted heterocyclyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heterocyclyl group is an unsubstituted 3-14 membered heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, the heterocyclyl group is a substituted 3-14 membered heterocyclyl.

As used herein, “aryl” refers to a radical of a monocyclic or polycyclic (e.g., bicyclic or tricyclic) 4n+2 aromatic ring system (e.g., having 6, 10, or 14 it electrons shared in a cyclic array) having 6-14 ring carbon atoms and zero heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system (“C₆₋₁₄ aryl”). In some embodiments, an aryl group has 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₆ aryl”; e.g., phenyl). In some embodiments, an aryl group has 10 ring carbon atoms (“C₁₀ aryl”; e.g., naphthyl such as 1-naphthyl and 2-naphthyl). In some embodiments, an aryl group has 14 ring carbon atoms (“C₁₄ aryl”; e.g., anthracyl). “Aryl” also includes ring systems wherein the aryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl groups wherein the radical or point of attachment is on the aryl ring, and in such instances, the number of carbon atoms continue to designate the number of carbon atoms in the aryl ring system. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an aryl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted aryl”) or substituted (a “substituted aryl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the aryl group is an unsubstituted C₆₋₁₄ aryl. In certain embodiments, the aryl group is a substituted C₆₋₁₄ aryl.

As used herein, “heteroaryl” refers to a radical of a 5-14 membered monocyclic or polycyclic (e.g., bicyclic, tricyclic) 4n+2 aromatic ring system (e.g., having 6, 10, or 14 it electrons shared in a cyclic array) having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur (“5-14 membered heteroaryl”). In heteroaryl groups that contain one or more nitrogen atoms, the point of attachment can be a carbon or nitrogen atom, as valency permits. Heteroaryl polycyclic ring systems can include one or more heteroatoms in one or both rings. “Heteroaryl” includes ring systems wherein the heteroaryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl groups wherein the point of attachment is on the heteroaryl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members continue to designate the number of ring members in the heteroaryl ring system. “Heteroaryl” also includes ring systems wherein the heteroaryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl groups wherein the point of attachment is either on the aryl or heteroaryl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members designates the number of ring members in the fused polycyclic (arylheteroaryl) ring system. Polycyclic heteroaryl groups wherein one ring does not contain a heteroatom (e.g., indolyl, quinolinyl, carbazolyl, and the like) the point of attachment can be on either ring, i.e., either the ring bearing a heteroatom (e.g., 2-indolyl) or the ring that does not contain a heteroatom (e.g., 5-indolyl).

Affixing the suffix “-ene” to a group indicates the group is a divalent moiety, e.g., alkylene is the divalent moiety of alkyl, alkenylene is the divalent moiety of alkenyl, alkynylene is the divalent moiety of alkynyl, heteroalkylene is the divalent moiety of heteroalkyl, heteroalkenylene is the divalent moiety of heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynylene is the divalent moiety of heteroalkynyl, carbocyclylene is the divalent moiety of carbocyclyl, heterocyclylene is the divalent moiety of heterocyclyl, arylene is the divalent moiety of aryl, and heteroarylene is the divalent moiety of heteroaryl.

As understood from the above, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups, as defined herein, are, in certain embodiments, optionally substituted. Optionally substituted refers to a group which may be substituted or unsubstituted (e.g., “substituted” or “unsubstituted” alkyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” alkenyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” alkynyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” heteroalkyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” heteroalkenyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” heteroalkynyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” carbocyclyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” heterocyclyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” aryl or “substituted” or “unsubstituted” heteroaryl group). In general, the term “substituted” means that at least one hydrogen present on a group is replaced with a permissible substituent, e.g., a substituent which upon substitution results in a stable compound, e.g., a compound which does not spontaneously undergo transformation such as by rearrangement, cyclization, elimination, or other reaction. Unless otherwise indicated, a “substituted” group has a substituent at one or more substitutable positions of the group, and when more than one position in any given structure is substituted, the substituent is either the same or different at each position. The term “substituted” is contemplated to include substitution with all permissible substituents of organic compounds, any of the substituents described herein that results in the formation of a stable compound. The present invention contemplates any and all such combinations in order to arrive at a stable compound. For purposes of this invention, heteroatoms such as nitrogen may have hydrogen substituents and/or any suitable substituent as described herein which satisfy the valencies of the heteroatoms and results in the formation of a stable moiety.

Exemplary carbon atom substituents include, but are not limited to, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃, —SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OR^(aa), —ON(R^(bb))₂, —N(R^(bb))₂, —N(R^(bb))₃ ⁺X⁻, —N(OR^(cc))R^(bb), —SH, —SR^(aa), —SSR^(cc), —C(═O)R^(aa), —CO₂H, —CHO, —C(OR^(cc))₂, —CO₂R^(aa), —OC(═O)R^(aa), —OCO₂R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —OC(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —NR^(bb)C(═O)R^(aa), —NR^(bb)CO₂R^(aa), —NR^(bb)C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa), —OC(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —OC(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —OC(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —NR^(bb)C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)NR^(bb)SO₂R^(aa), NR^(bb)SO₂R^(aa), —SO₂N(R^(bb))₂, —SO₂R^(aa), —SO₂OR^(aa), —OSO₂R^(aa), —S(═O)R^(aa), —OS(═O)R^(aa), —Si(R^(aa))₃, —OSi(R^(aa))₃—C(═S)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)SR^(aa), —C(═S)SR^(aa), —SC(═S)SR^(aa), —SC(═O)SR^(aa), —OC(═O)SR^(aa), —SC(═O)OR^(aa), —SC(═O)R^(aa), —P(═O)₂R^(aa), —OP(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —OP(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —OP(═O)(OR^(cc))₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(bb))₂, —OP(═O)₂N(R^(bb))₂, —P(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, —OP(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, —NR^(bb)P(═O)(OR^(cc))₂, —NR^(bb)P(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, —P(R^(cc))₂, —P(R^(cc))₃, —OP(R^(cc))₂, —OP(R^(cc))₃, —B(R^(aa))₂, —B(OR^(cc))₂, —BR^(aa)(OR^(cc)), C₁₋₁₀ alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, C₁₋₁₀ heteroalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ heteroalkenyl, C₂₋₁₀heteroalkynyl, C₃₋₁₄ carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups;

or two geminal hydrogens on a carbon atom are replaced with the group ═O, ═S, ═NN(R^(bb))₂, ═NNR^(bb)C(═O)R^(aa), ═NNR^(bb)C(═O)OR^(aa), ═NNR^(bb)S(═O)₂R^(aa), ═NR^(bb), or ═NOR^(cc);

each instance of R^(aa) is, independently, selected from C₁₋₁₀ alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, C₁₋₁₀ heteroalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ heteroalkenyl, C₂₋₁₀heteroalkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two R^(aa) groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups;

-   -   each instance of R^(bb) is, independently, selected from         hydrogen, —OH, —OR^(aa), —N(R^(cc))₂, —CN, —C(═O)R^(aa),         —C(═O)N(R^(cc))₂, —CO₂R^(aa), —SO₂R^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))OR^(aa),         —C(═NR^(cc))N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂R^(cc), —SO₂OR^(cc),         —SOR^(aa), —C(═S)N(R^(cc))₂, —C(═O)SR^(cc), —C(═S)SR^(cc),         —P(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(cc))₂,         —P(═O)(NR^(cc))₂, C₁₋₁₀ alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀         alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, C₁₋₁₀ heteroalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ heteroalkenyl,         C₂₋₁₀heteroalkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered         heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two         R^(bb) groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or         5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl,         alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl,         heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted         with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups;     -   each instance of R^(cc) is, independently, selected from         hydrogen, C₁ 10 alkyl, C₁₋₁₀ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀         alkynyl, C₁ 10 heteroalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ heteroalkenyl,         C₂₋₁₀heteroalkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered         heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two         R^(cc) groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or         5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl,         alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl,         heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted         with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups;     -   each instance of R^(dd) is, independently, selected from         halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃, —SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OR^(ee),         —ON(R^(ff))₂, —N(R^(ff))₂, —N(R^(ff))₃ ⁺X⁻, —N(OR^(ee))R^(ff),         —SH, —SR^(ee), —SSR^(ee), —C(═O)R^(ee), —CO₂H, —CO₂R^(ee),         —OC(═O)R^(ee), —OCO₂R^(ee), —C(═O)N(R^(ff))₂, —OC(═O)N(R^(ff))₂,         —NR^(ff)C(═O)R^(ee), —NR^(ff)CO₂R^(ee), —NR^(ff)C(═O)N(R^(ff))₂,         —C(═NR^(ff))OR^(ee), OC(═NR^(ff))R^(ee), —OC(═NR^(ff))OR^(ee),         —C(═NR^(ff))N(R^(ff))₂, —OC(═NR^(ff))N(R^(ff))₂,         —NR^(ff)C(═NR^(ff))N(R^(ff))₂, —NR^(ff)SO₂R^(ee),         —SO₂N(R^(ff))₂, —SO₂R^(ee), —SO₂OR^(ee), —OSO₂R^(ee),         —S(═O)R^(ee), —Si(R^(ee))₃, —OSi(R^(ee))₃, —C(═S)N(R^(ff))₂,         —C(═O)SR^(ee), —C(═S)SR^(ee), —SC(═S)SR^(ee), —P(═O)₂R^(ee),         —P(═O)(R^(ee))₂, —OP(═O)(R^(ee))₂, —OP(═O)(OR^(ee))₂, C₁₋₆         alkyl, C₁₋₆ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₆ alkenyl, C₂₋₆ alkynyl, C₁₋₆         heteroalkyl, C₂₋₆ heteroalkenyl, C₂₋₆heteroalkynyl, C₃₋₁₀         carbocyclyl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₀ aryl, 5-10         membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl,         heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted         with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(gg) groups, or two geminal R^(dd)         substituents can be joined to form ═O or ═S;     -   each instance of R^(ee) is, independently, selected from C₁₋₆         alkyl, C₁₋₆ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₆ alkenyl, C₂₋₆ alkynyl, C₁₋₆         heteroalkyl, C₂₋₆ heteroalkenyl, C₂₋₆heteroalkynyl, C₃₋₁₀         carbocyclyl, C₆₋₁₀ aryl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, and 3-10         membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl,         heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted         with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(gg) groups;     -   each instance of R^(ff) is, independently, selected from         hydrogen, C₁₋₆ alkyl, C₁₋₆ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₆ alkenyl, C₂₋₆         alkynyl, C₁₋₆ heteroalkyl, C₂₋₆ heteroalkenyl, C₂₋₆         heteroalkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl,         C₆₋₁₀ aryl and 5-10 membered heteroaryl, or two R^(ff) groups         are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered         heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,         heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl,         heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted         with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(gg) groups; and     -   each instance of R^(gg) is, independently, halogen, —CN, —NO₂,         —N₃, —SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OC₁₋₆ alkyl, —ON(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —N(C₁₋₆         alkyl)₂, —N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₃ ⁺X⁻, —NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂ ⁺X⁻, —NH₂(C₁₋₆         alkyl) X, —NH₃+X, —N(OC₁₋₆ alkyl)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —N(OH)(C₁₋₆         alkyl), —NH(OH), —SH, —SC₁₋₆ alkyl, —SS(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —C(═O)(C₁₋₆         alkyl), —CO₂H, —CO₂(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —OC(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —OCO₂(C₆         alkyl), —C(═O)NH₂, —C(═O)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —OC(═O)NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl),         —NHC(═O)(C₁ alkyl), —N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)C(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —NHCO₂(C₁₋₆         alkyl), —NHC(═O)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —NHC(═O)NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl),         —NHC(═O)NH₂, —C(═NH)O(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —OC(═NH)(C₁₋₆ alkyl),         —OC(═NH)OC₁₋₆ alkyl, —C(═NH)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —C(═NH)NH(C₁₋₆         alkyl), —C(═NH)NH₂, —OC(═NH)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —OC(NH)NH(C₁₋₆         alkyl), —OC(NH)NH₂, —NHC(NH)N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —NHC(═NH)NH₂,         —NHSO₂(C₁₋₆ alkyl), —SO₂N(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —SO₂NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl),         —SO₂NH₂, —SO₂C₁₋₆ alkyl, —SO₂OC₁₋₆ alkyl, —OSO₂C₁₋₆ alkyl,         —SOC₁₋₆ alkyl, —Si(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₃, —OSi(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₃-C(═S)N(C₁₋₆         alkyl)₂, C(═S)NH(C₁₋₆ alkyl), C(═S)NH₂, —C(═O)S(C₁₋₆ alkyl),         —C(═S)SC₁₋₆ alkyl, —SC(═S)SC₁₋₆ alkyl, —P(═O)₂(C₁₋₆ alkyl),         —P(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —OP(═O)(C₁₋₆ alkyl)₂, —OP(═O)(OC₁₋₆         alkyl)₂, C₁ alkyl, C₁₋₆ perhaloalkyl, C₂₋₆ alkenyl, C₂₋₆         alkynyl, C₁₋₆ heteroalkyl, C₂₋₆ heteroalkenyl, C₂₋₆         heteroalkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, C₆₋₁₀₀ aryl, 3-10 membered         heterocyclyl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl; or two geminal R^(gg)         substituents can be joined to form ═O or ═S; wherein X is a         counterion.

As used herein, the term “halo” or “halogen” refers to fluorine (fluoro, —F), chlorine (chloro, —Cl), bromine (bromo, —Br), or iodine (iodo, —I).

In certain embodiments, the substituent present on the nitrogen atom is an nitrogen protecting group (also referred to herein as an “amino protecting group”). Nitrogen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, —OH, —OR^(aa), —N(R^(cc))₂, —C(═O)R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(cc))₂, —CO₂R^(aa), —SO₂R^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(cc))N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂N(R^(cc))₂, —SO₂R^(cc), —SO₂OR^(cc), —SOR^(aa), —C(═S)N(R^(cc))₂, —C(═O)SR^(cc), —C(═S)SR^(cc), C₁₋₁₀ alkyl (e.g., aralkyl, heteroaralkyl), C₂₋₁₀ alkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ alkynyl, C₁₋₁₀ heteroalkyl, C₂₋₁₀ heteroalkenyl, C₂₋₁₀ heteroalkynyl, C₃₋₁₀ carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C₆₋₁₄ aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl groups, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aralkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^(dd) groups, and wherein R^(aa), R^(bb), R^(cc) and R^(dd) are as defined herein. Nitrogen protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in detail in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3^(rd) edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference.

For example, nitrogen protecting groups such as amide groups (e.g., —C(═O)R^(aa)) include, but are not limited to, formamide, acetamide, chloroacetamide, trichloroacetamide, trifluoroacetamide, phenylacetamide, 3-phenylpropanamide, picolinamide, 3-pyridylcarboxamide, N-benzoylphenylalanyl derivative, benzamide, p-phenylbenzamide, o-nitophenylacetamide, o-nitrophenoxyacetamide, acetoacetamide, (N′-dithiobenzyloxyacylamino)acetamide, 3-(p-hydroxyphenyl)propanamide, 3-(o-nitrophenyl)propanamide, 2-methyl-2-(o-nitrophenoxy)propanamide, 2-methyl-2-(o-phenylazophenoxy)propanamide, 4-chlorobutanamide, 3-methyl-3-nitrobutanamide, o-nitrocinnamide, N-acetylmethionine derivative, o-nitrobenzamide and o-(benzoyloxymethyl)benzamide.

Nitrogen protecting groups such as carbamate groups (e.g., —C(═O)OR^(aa)) include, but are not limited to, methyl carbamate, ethyl carbamate, 9-fluorenylmethyl carbamate (Fmoc), 9-(2-sulfo)fluorenylmethyl carbamate, 9-(2,7-dibromo)fluoroenylmethyl carbamate, 2,7-di-t-butyl-[9-(10,10-dioxo-10,10,10,10-tetrahydrothioxanthyl)]methyl carbamate (DBD-Tmoc), 4-methoxyphenacyl carbamate (Phenoc), 2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbamate (Troc), 2-trimethylsilylethyl carbamate (Teoc), 2-phenylethyl carbamate (hZ), 1-(1-adamantyl)-1-methylethyl carbamate (Adpoc), 1,1-dimethyl-2-haloethyl carbamate, 1,1-dimethyl-2,2-dibromoethyl carbamate (DB-t-BOC), 1,1-dimethyl-2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbamate (TCBOC), 1-methyl-1-(4-biphenylyl)ethyl carbamate (Bpoc), 1-(3,5-di-t-butylphenyl)-1-methylethyl carbamate (t-Bumeoc), 2-(2′- and 4′-pyridyl)ethyl carbamate (Pyoc), 2-(N,N-dicyclohexylcarboxamido)ethyl carbamate, t-butyl carbamate (BOC), 1-adamantyl carbamate (Adoc), vinyl carbamate (Voc), allyl carbamate (Alloc), 1-isopropylallyl carbamate (Ipaoc), cinnamyl carbamate (Coc), 4-nitrocinnamyl carbamate (Noc), 8-quinolyl carbamate, N-hydroxypiperidinyl carbamate, alkyldithio carbamate, benzyl carbamate (Cbz), p-methoxybenzyl carbamate (Moz), p-nitobenzyl carbamate, p-bromobenzyl carbamate, p-chlorobenzyl carbamate, 2,4-dichlorobenzyl carbamate, 4-methylsulfinylbenzyl carbamate (Msz), 9-anthrylmethyl carbamate, diphenylmethyl carbamate, 2-methylthioethyl carbamate, 2-methylsulfonylethyl carbamate, 2-(p-toluenesulfonyl)ethyl carbamate, [2-(1,3-dithianyl)]methyl carbamate (Dmoc), 4-methylthiophenyl carbamate (Mtpc), 2,4-dimethylthiophenyl carbamate (Bmpc), 2-phosphonioethyl carbamate (Peoc), 2-triphenylphosphonioisopropyl carbamate (Ppoc), 1,1-dimethyl-2-cyanoethyl carbamate, m-chloro-p-acyloxybenzyl carbamate, p-(dihydroxyboryl)benzyl carbamate, 5-benzisoxazolylmethyl carbamate, 2-(trifluoromethyl)-6-chromonylmethyl carbamate (Tcroc), m-nitrophenyl carbamate, 3,5-dimethoxybenzyl carbamate, o-nitrobenzyl carbamate, 3,4-dimethoxy-6-nitrobenzyl carbamate, phenyl(o-nitrophenyl)methyl carbamate, t-amyl carbamate, S-benzyl thiocarbamate, p-cyanobenzyl carbamate, cyclobutyl carbamate, cyclohexyl carbamate, cyclopentyl carbamate, cyclopropylmethyl carbamate, p-decyloxybenzyl carbamate, 2,2-dimethoxyacylvinyl carbamate, o-(N,N-dimethylcarboxamido)benzyl carbamate, 1,1-dimethyl-3-(N,N-dimethylcarboxamido)propyl carbamate, 1,1-dimethylpropynyl carbamate, di(2-pyridyl)methyl carbamate, 2-furanylmethyl carbamate, 2-iodoethyl carbamate, isobornyl carbamate, isobutyl carbamate, isonicotinyl carbamate, p-(p′-methoxyphenylazo)benzyl carbamate, 1-methylcyclobutyl carbamate, 1-methylcyclohexyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-cyclopropylmethyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-(3,5-dimethoxyphenyl)ethyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-(p-phenylazophenyl)ethyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-phenylethyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-(4-pyridyl)ethyl carbamate, phenyl carbamate, p-(phenylazo)benzyl carbamate, 2,4,6-tri-t-butylphenyl carbamate, 4-(trimethylammonium)benzyl carbamate, and 2,4,6-trimethylbenzyl carbamate.

Nitrogen protecting groups such as sulfonamide groups (e.g., —S(═O)₂R^(aa)) include, but are not limited to, p-toluenesulfonamide (Ts), benzenesulfonamide, 2,3,6,-trimethyl-4-dimethoxynaphthylmethyl)benzenesulfonamide (DNMBS), benzylsulfonamide, trifluoromethylsulfonamide, and phenacylsulfonamide.

Other nitrogen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, phenothiazinyl-(10)-acyl derivative, N′-p-toluenesulfonylaminoacyl derivative, N′-phenylaminothioacyl derivative, N-benzoylphenylalanyl derivative, N-acetylmethionine derivative, 4,5-diphenyl-3-oxazolin-2-one, N-phthalimide, N-dithiasuccinimide (Dts), N-2,3-diphenylmaleimide, N-2,5-dimethylpyrrole, N-1,1,4,4-tetramethyldisilylazacyclopentane adduct (STABASE), 5-substituted 1,3-dimethyl-1,3,5-triazacyclohexan-2-one, 5-substituted 1,3-dibenzyl-1,3,5-triazacyclohexan-2-one, 1-substituted 3,5-dinitro-4-pyridone, N-methylamine, N-allylamine, N-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy]methylamine (SEM), N-3-acetoxypropylamine, N-(1-isopropyl-4-nitro-2-oxo-3-pyroolin-3-yl)amine, quaternary ammonium salts, N-benzylamine, N-di(4-methoxyphenyl)methylamine, N-5-dibenzosuberylamine, N-triphenylmethylamine (Tr), N-[(4-methoxyphenyl)diphenylmethyl]amine (MMTr), N-9-phenylfluorenylamine (PhF), N-2,7-dichloro-9-fluorenylmethyleneamine, N-ferrocenylmethylamino (Fcm), N-2-picolylamino N′-oxide, N-1,1-dimethylthiomethyleneamine, N-benzylideneamine, N-p-methoxybenzylideneamine, N-diphenylmethyleneamine, N-[(2-pyridyl)mesityl]methyleneamine, N—(N′,N′-dimethylaminomethylene)amine, N,N′-isopropylidenediamine, N-p-nitrobenzylideneamine, N-salicylideneamine, N-5-chlorosalicylideneamine, N-(5-chloro-2-hydroxyphenyl)phenylmethyleneamine, N-cyclohexylideneamine, N-(5,5-dimethyl-3-oxo-1-cyclohexenyl)amine, N-borane derivative, N-diphenylborinic acid derivative, N-[phenyl(pentaacylchromium- or tungsten)acyl]amine, N-copper chelate, N-zinc chelate, N-nitroamine, N-nitrosoamine, amine N-oxide, diphenylphosphinamide (Dpp), dimethylthiophosphinamide (Mpt), diphenylthiophosphinamide (Ppt), dialkyl phosphoramidates, dibenzyl phosphoramidate, diphenyl phosphoramidate, benzenesulfenamide, o-nitrobenzenesulfenamide (Nps), 2,4-dinitrobenzenesulfenamide, pentachlorobenzenesulfenamide, 2-nitro-4-methoxybenzenesulfenamide, triphenylmethylsulfenamide, and 3-nitropyridinesulfenamide (Npys).

In certain embodiments, the substituent present on an oxygen atom is an oxygen protecting group (also referred to herein as an “hydroxyl protecting group”). Oxygen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, —R^(aa), —N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)SR^(aa), —C(═O)R^(aa), —CO₂R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —S(═O)R^(aa), —SO₂R^(aa), —Si(R^(aa))₃, —P(R^(cc))₂, —P(R^(cc))₃, —P(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —P(═O)(OR^(cc))₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(bb))₂, and —P(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, wherein R^(aa), R^(bb), and R^(cc) are as defined herein. Oxygen protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in detail in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3^(rd) edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference.

Exemplary oxygen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, methoxylmethyl (MOM), methylthiomethyl (MTM), t-butylthiomethyl, (phenyldimethylsilyl)methoxymethyl (SMOM), benzyloxymethyl (BOM), p-methoxybenzyloxymethyl (PMBM), (4-methoxyphenoxy)methyl (p-AOM), guaiacolmethyl (GUM), t-butoxymethyl, 4-pentenyloxymethyl (POM), siloxymethyl, 2-methoxyethoxymethyl (MEM), 2,2,2-trichloroethoxymethyl, bis(2-chloroethoxy)methyl, 2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxymethyl (SEMOR), tetrahydropyranyl (THP), 3-bromotetrahydropyranyl, tetrahydrothiopyranyl, 1-methoxycyclohexyl, 4-methoxytetrahydropyranyl (MTHP), 4-methoxytetrahydrothiopyranyl, 4-methoxytetrahydrothiopyranyl S,S-dioxide, 1-[(2-chloro-4-methyl)phenyl]-4-methoxypiperidin-4-yl (CTMP), 1,4-dioxan-2-yl, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothiofuranyl, 2,3,3a,4,5,6,7,7a-octahydro-7,8,8-trimethyl-4,7-methanobenzofuran-2-yl, 1-ethoxyethyl, 1-(2-chloroethoxyl)ethyl, 1-methyl-1-methoxyethyl, 1-methyl-1-benzyloxyethyl, 1-methyl-1-benzyloxy-2-fluoroethyl, 2,2,2-trichloroethyl, 2-trimethylsilylethyl, 2-(phenylselenyl)ethyl, t-butyl, allyl, p-chlorophenyl, p-methoxyphenyl, 2,4-dinitrophenyl, benzyl (Bn), p-methoxybenzyl, 3,4-dimethoxybenzyl, o-nitrobenzyl, p-nitrobenzyl, p-halobenzyl, 2,6-dichlorobenzyl, p-cyanobenzyl, p-phenylbenzyl, 2-picolyl, 4-picolyl, 3-methyl-2-picolyl N-oxido, diphenylmethyl, p,p′-dinitrobenzhydryl, 5-dibenzosuberyl, triphenylmethyl, α-naphthyldiphenylmethyl, p-methoxyphenyldiphenylmethyl, di(p-methoxyphenyl)phenylmethyl, tri(p-methoxyphenyl)methyl, 4-(4′-bromophenacyloxyphenyl)diphenylmethyl, 4,4′,4″-tris(4,5-dichlorophthalimidophenyl)methyl, 4,4′,4″-tris(levulinoyloxyphenyl)methyl, 4,4′,4″-tris(benzoyloxyphenyl)methyl, 3-(imidazol-1-yl)bis(4′,4″-dimethoxyphenyl)methyl, 1,1-bis(4-methoxyphenyl)-1′-pyrenylmethyl, 9-anthryl, 9-(9-phenyl)xanthenyl, 9-(9-phenyl-10-oxo)anthryl, 1,3-benzodithiolan-2-yl, benzisothiazolyl S,S-dioxido, trimethylsilyl (TMS), triethylsilyl (TES), triisopropylsilyl (TIPS), dimethylisopropylsilyl (IPDMS), diethylisopropylsilyl (DEIPS), dimethylthexylsilyl, t-butyldimethylsilyl (TBDMS), t-butyldiphenylsilyl (TBDPS), tribenzylsilyl, tri-p-xylylsilyl, triphenylsilyl, diphenylmethylsilyl (DPMS), t-butylmethoxyphenylsilyl (TBMPS), formate, benzoylformate, acetate, chloroacetate, dichloroacetate, trichloroacetate, trifluoroacetate, methoxyacetate, triphenylmethoxyacetate, phenoxyacetate, p-chlorophenoxyacetate, 3-phenylpropionate, 4-oxopentanoate (levulinate), 4,4-(ethylenedithio)pentanoate (levulinoyldithioacetal), pivaloate, adamantoate, crotonate, 4-methoxycrotonate, benzoate, p-phenylbenzoate, 2,4,6-trimethylbenzoate (mesitoate), methyl carbonate, 9-fluorenylmethyl carbonate (Fmoc), ethyl carbonate, 2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbonate (Troc), 2-(trimethylsilyl)ethyl carbonate (TMSEC), 2-(phenylsulfonyl) ethyl carbonate (Psec), 2-(triphenylphosphonio) ethyl carbonate (Peoc), isobutyl carbonate, vinyl carbonate, allyl carbonate, t-butyl carbonate (BOC), p-nitrophenyl carbonate, benzyl carbonate, p-methoxybenzyl carbonate, 3,4-dimethoxybenzyl carbonate, o-nitrobenzyl carbonate, p-nitrobenzyl carbonate, S-benzyl thiocarbonate, 4-ethoxy-1-napththyl carbonate, methyl dithiocarbonate, 2-iodobenzoate, 4-azidobutyrate, 4-nitro-4-methylpentanoate, o-(dibromomethyl)benzoate, 2-formylbenzenesulfonate, 2-(methylthiomethoxy)ethyl, 4-(methylthiomethoxy)butyrate, 2-(methylthiomethoxymethyl)benzoate, 2,6-dichloro-4-methylphenoxyacetate, 2,6-dichloro-4-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl)phenoxyacetate, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylpropyl)phenoxyacetate, chlorodiphenylacetate, isobutyrate, monosuccinoate, (E)-2-methyl-2-butenoate, o-(methoxyacyl)benzoate, α-naphthoate, nitrate, alkyl N,N,N′,N′-tetramethylphosphorodiamidate, alkyl N-phenylcarbamate, borate, dimethylphosphinothioyl, alkyl 2,4-dinitrophenylsulfenate, sulfate, methanesulfonate (mesylate), benzylsulfonate, and tosylate (Ts).

In certain embodiments, the substituent present on an sulfur atom is a sulfur protecting group (also referred to as a “thiol protecting group”). Sulfur protecting groups include, but are not limited to, —R^(aa), —N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═O)SR^(aa), —C(═O)R^(aa), —CO₂R^(aa), —C(═O)N(R^(bb))₂, —C(═NR^(bb))R^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))OR^(aa), —C(═NR^(bb))N(R^(bb))₂, —S(═O)R^(aa), —SO₂R^(aa), —Si(R^(aa))₃, —P(R^(cc))₂, —P(R^(cc))₃, —P(═O)₂R^(aa), —P(═O)(R^(aa))₂, —P(═O)(OR^(cc))₂, —P(═O)₂N(R^(bb))₂, and —P(═O)(NR^(bb))₂, wherein R^(aa), R^(bb), and R^(cc) are as defined herein. Sulfur protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in detail in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3rd edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference.

As used herein, the term “salt” refers to any and all salts, including pharmaceutically acceptable salt which refers to those salts within the scope of sound medical judgment, suitable for use in contact with the tissues of humans and lower animals without undue toxicity, irritation, allergic response and the like, and are commensurate with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio (see Berge et al. describes pharmaceutically acceptable salts in detail in J. Pharmaceutical Sciences (1977) 66:1-19). Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable, nontoxic acid salts are salts of an amino group formed with inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid and perchloric acid or with organic acids such as acetic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, succinic acid, or malonic acid or by using other methods used in the art such as ion exchange. Other pharmaceutically acceptable salts include adipate, alginate, ascorbate, aspartate, benzenesulfonate, benzoate, bisulfate, borate, butyrate, camphorate, camphorsulfonate, citrate, cyclopentanepropionate, digluconate, dodecylsulfate, ethanesulfonate, formate, fumarate, glucoheptonate, glycerophosphate, gluconate, hemisulfate, heptanoate, hexanoate, hydroiodide, 2-hydroxy-ethanesulfonate, lactobionate, lactate, laurate, lauryl sulfate, malate, maleate, malonate, methanesulfonate, 2-naphthalenesulfonate, nicotinate, nitrate, oleate, oxalate, palmitate, pamoate, pectinate, persulfate, 3-phenylpropionate, phosphate, picrate, pivalate, propionate, stearate, succinate, sulfate, tartrate, thiocyanate, p-toluenesulfonate, undecanoate, valerate salts, and the like. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts derived from appropriate bases include alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, ammonium and N⁺(C₁₋₄alkyl)₄ salts. Representative alkali or alkaline earth metal salts include sodium, lithium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and the like. Further pharmaceutically acceptable salts include, when appropriate, nontoxic ammonium, quaternary ammonium, and amine cations formed using counterions such as halide, hydroxide, carboxylate, sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, lower alkyl sulfonate, and aryl sulfonate.

As used herein, “derivative” of a compound refers to solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, isotopically labeled derivatives, prodrugs of the compound.

The term “polymorphs” means crystal structures in which a compound (or a salt, hydrate, or solvate thereof) can crystallize in different crystal packing arrangements, all of which have the same elemental composition. Different crystal forms usually have different X-ray diffraction patterns, infrared spectra, melting points, density, hardness, crystal shape, optical and electrical properties, stability, and solubility. Recrystallization solvent, rate of crystallization, storage temperature, and other factors may cause one crystal form to dominate. Crystalline polymorphs of a compound can be prepared by crystallization under different conditions.

The term “co-crystal” refers to a crystalline structure composed of at least two components, where the components may be atoms, ions, or molecules. Typically, the components interact with one another to form the crystalline structure through ionic or, more commonly, non-ionic interactions. For a specific co-crystal form, all its components can be found within a single crystal lattice (unit cell) and are usually in a definite stoichiometric ratio. A component of a co-crystal may be a solid or liquid when the component is in its pure form. Crystalline salts, crystalline hydrates, and crystalline solvates are also within the meaning of co-crystals.

“Solvate” refers to forms of the compound that are associated with a solvent or water (also referred to as a “hydrate”), usually by a solvolysis reaction. This physical association includes hydrogen bonding. Conventional solvents include water, methanol, ethanol, acetic acid, DMSO, THF, diethyl ether, and the like. The compounds of the invention may be prepared, e.g., in crystalline form, and may be solvated or hydrated. Suitable solvates include pharmaceutically acceptable solvates, such as hydrates, and further include both stoichiometric solvates and non-stoichiometric solvates. In certain instances, the solvate will be capable of isolation, for example, when one or more solvent molecules are incorporated in the crystal lattice of the crystalline solid. “Solvate” encompasses both solution-phase and isolable solvates. Representative solvates include hydrates, ethanolates, and methanolates.

“Tautomers” refer to compounds that are interchangeable forms of a particular compound structure, and that vary in the displacement of hydrogen atoms and electrons. Thus, two structures may be in equilibrium through the movement of it electrons and an atom (usually H). For example, enols and ketones are tautomers because they are rapidly interconverted by treatment with either acid or base. Another example of tautomerism is the aci- and nitro-forms of phenylnitromethane, that are likewise formed by treatment with acid or base.

Tautomeric forms may be relevant to the attainment of the optimal chemical reactivity and biological activity of a compound of interest.

As used herein, “isotopically labeled derivatives” of a compound refer to derivatives of the compound wherein at least one atom of the compound is enriched for an isotope that is higher or lower in molecular weight than the most abundant isotope of the atom found in nature.

“Prodrugs” refers to compounds, including derivatives of the compounds of the invention, which have cleavable groups and become by solvolysis or under physiological conditions the compounds of the invention which are pharmaceutically active in vivo. Such examples include, but are not limited to, choline ester derivatives and the like, N-alkylmorpholine esters and the like. Other derivatives of the compounds of this invention have activity in both their acid and acid derivative forms, but in the acid sensitive form often offers advantages of solubility, tissue compatibility, or delayed release in the mammalian organism (see, Bundgard, H., Design of Prodrugs, pp. 7-9, 21-24, Elsevier, Amsterdam 1985). Prodrugs include acid derivatives well know to practitioners of the art, such as, for example, esters prepared by reaction of the parent acid with a suitable alcohol, or amides prepared by reaction of the parent acid compound with a substituted or unsubstituted amine, or acid anhydrides, or mixed anhydrides. Simple aliphatic or aromatic esters, amides and anhydrides derived from acidic groups pendant on the compounds of this invention are particular prodrugs. In some cases it is desirable to prepare double ester type prodrugs such as (acyloxy)alkyl esters or ((alkoxycarbonyl)oxy)alkylesters. Particularly the C₁ to C₈ alkyl, C₂-C₈ alkenyl, C₂-C₈ alkynyl, aryl, C₇-C₁₂ substituted aryl, and C₇-C₁₂ arylalkyl esters of the compounds of the invention.

As used herein, when two entities are “conjugated” or “ligated” to one another they are linked by a direct or indirect covalent or non-covalent interaction. In certain embodiments, the association is covalent. In other embodiments, the association is non-covalent. Non-covalent interactions include hydrogen bonding, van der Waals interactions, hydrophobic interactions, magnetic interactions, electrostatic interactions, etc. An indirect covalent interaction is when two entities are covalently connected, optionally through a linker group.

As used herein, a “label” refers to a moiety that has at least one element, isotope, or functional group incorporated into the moiety which enables detection of the entity to which the label is attached. Labels can be directly attached (ie, via a bond) or can be attached by a linker (e.g., such as, for example, a cyclic or acyclic, branched or unbranched, substituted or unsubstituted alkylene; cyclic or acyclic, branched or unbranched, substituted or unsubstituted alkenylene; cyclic or acyclic, branched or unbranched, substituted or unsubstituted alkynylene; cyclic or acyclic, branched or unbranched, substituted or unsubstituted heteroalkylene; cyclic or acyclic, branched or unbranched, substituted or unsubstituted heteroalkenylene; cyclic or acyclic, branched or unbranched, substituted or unsubstituted heteroalkynylene; substituted or unsubstituted arylene; substituted or unsubstituted heteroarylene; or substituted or unsubstituted acylene, or any combination thereof, which can make up a linker). It will be appreciated that the label may be attached to the inventive entity at any position that does not interfere with the biological activity or characteristic of the entity that is being detected.

In general, a label can fall into any one (or more) of five classes: a) a label which contains isotopic moieties, which may be radioactive or heavy isotopes, including, but not limited to, ²H, ³H, ¹³C, ¹⁴C, ¹⁵N, ³¹P, ³²P, ³⁵S, ⁶⁷Ga, ^(99m)Tc (Tc-99m), ¹¹¹In, ¹²³I, ¹²⁵I, ¹⁶⁹Yb, and ¹⁸⁶Re; b) a label which contains an immune moiety, which may be antibodies or antigens, which may be bound to enzymes (e.g., such as horseradish peroxidase); c) a label which is a colored, luminescent, phosphorescent, or fluorescent moieties (e.g., such as the fluorescent label FITC); d) a label which has one or more photoaffinity moieties; and e) a label which has a ligand moiety with one or more known binding partners (such as biotin-streptavidin, FK506-FKBP, etc.).

In certain embodiments, such as in the identification of a biological target, label comprises a radioactive isotope, preferably an isotope which emits detectable particles, such as 0 particles. In certain embodiments, the label comprises one or more photoaffinity moieties for the direct elucidation of intermolecular interactions in biological systems. A variety of known photophores can be employed, most relying on photoconversion of diazo compounds, azides, or diazirines to nitrenes or carbenes (see, Bayley, H., Photogenerated Reagents in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (1983), Elsevier, Amsterdam, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference). In certain embodiments of the invention, the photoaffinity labels employed are o-, m- and p-azidobenzoyls, substituted with one or more halogen moieties, including, but not limited to 4-azido-2,3,5,6-tetrafluorobenzoic acid.

In certain embodiments, the label comprises one or more fluorescent moieties. In certain embodiments, the label is the fluorescent label FITC. In certain embodiments, the label comprises a ligand moiety with one or more known binding partners. In certain embodiments, the label comprises the ligand moiety biotin.

A “subject” to which administration is contemplated includes, but is not limited to, humans (i.e., a male or female of any age group, e.g., a pediatric subject (e.g., infant, child, adolescent) or adult subject (e.g., young adult, middle-aged adult, or senior adult)) and/or other non-human animals, for example, mammals (e.g., primates (e.g., cynomolgus monkeys, rhesus monkeys); commercially relevant mammals such as cattle, pigs, horses, sheep, goats, cats, and/or dogs) and birds (e.g., commercially relevant birds such as chickens, ducks, geese, and/or turkeys). In certain embodiments, the animal is a mammal. The animal may be a male or female and at any stage of development. A non-human animal may be a transgenic animal.

A “fluorophore” (or fluorochrome, similarly to a chromophore) is a fluorescent chemical compound that can re-emit light upon light excitation. Fluorophores typically contain several combined aromatic groups, or plane or cyclic molecules with several π bonds.

As used herein the term “sample,” “test sample,” “biological sample,” are used interchangeable. The term sample includes, without limitation, cell cultures or extracts thereof; biopsied material obtained from an animal (e.g., mammal) or extracts thereof; and blood, saliva, urine, feces, semen, tears, or other body fluids or extracts thereof. For example, the term “sample” refers to any solid or fluid sample obtained from, excreted by or secreted by any living organism, including single-celled microorganisms (such as bacteria and yeasts) and multicellular organisms (such as plants and animals, for instance a vertebrate or a mammal, and in particular a healthy or apparently healthy human subject or a human patient affected by a condition or disease to be diagnosed or investigated). The sample can be in any form, including a solid material such as a tissue, cells, a cell pellet, a cell extract, cell homogenates, or cell fractions; or a biopsy, or a biological fluid. The biological fluid may be obtained from any site (e.g. blood, saliva (or a mouth wash containing buccal cells), tears, plasma, serum, urine, bile, cerebrospinal fluid, amniotic fluid, peritoneal fluid, and pleural fluid, or cells therefrom, aqueous or vitreous humor, or any bodily secretion), a transudate, an exudate (e.g. fluid obtained from an abscess or any other site of infection or inflammation), or fluid obtained from a joint (e.g. a normal joint or a joint affected by disease such as rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, gout or septic arthritis). The sample can be obtained from any organ or tissue (including a biopsy or autopsy specimen) or may comprise cells (whether primary cells or cultured cells) or medium conditioned by any cell, tissue or organ. Biological samples may also include sections of tissues such as frozen sections taken for histological purposes. Biological samples also include mixtures of biological molecules including proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids generated by partial or complete fractionation of cell or tissue homogenates. Although the sample is preferably taken from a human subject, biological samples may be from any animal, plant, bacteria, virus, yeast, etc. The term animal, as used herein, refers to humans as well as non-human animals, at any stage of development, including, for example, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, worms and single cells. Cell cultures and live tissue samples are considered to be pluralities of animals. In certain exemplary embodiments, the non-human animal is a mammal (e.g., a rodent, a mouse, a rat, a rabbit, a monkey, a dog, a cat, a sheep, cattle, a primate, or a pig). An animal may be a transgenic animal or a human clone. If desired, the biological sample may be subjected to preliminary processing, including preliminary separation techniques.

As used herein “inhibition”, “inhibiting”, “inhibit” and “inhibitor”, and the like, refer to the ability of a compound to reduce, slow, halt, or prevent the activity of a particular biological process involving Ras in a cell relative to vehicle.

As used herein, the term “cell” in the context of the in vivo applications of the invention is meant to encompass eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells of any genus or species, with mammalian cells being of particular interest. “Cell” is also meant to encompass both normal cells and diseased cells, e.g., cancerous cells. In many embodiments, the cells are living cells.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1. Identification and imaging of sialidase activity changes using activity-based sialidase probes. (1A) Structures of DFSA, PDFSA, and Azido-Biotin. (1B) Identification and imaging of sialidase with activity changes using these activity-based sialidase probes.

FIG. 2. Identification of sialidases by DFSA-5-yne adduct formation. Identification of sialidases by DFSA adduct formation. (2A) Recombinant sialidases produced in E. coli were briefly treated with DFSA, separated in SDS-PAGE, and transferred to PVDF membranes (left and middle panels) that were reacted with the click reaction reagent azido-biotin to ligate the biotin moiety to the alkyne group of the enzyme conjugate. The biotin modified sialidases present in the washed membrane were detected through the streptavidin conjugated HRP reporting system. These sialidase adducts were also shown by Coomassie blue staining (right panel). (2B) Detection of influenza NA was conducted after incubating influenza virus (A/WSN/1933/H1N1) samples with DFSA with or without addition of the specific inhibitor oseltamivir acid (OS) to compete with DFSA for binding to the active site (left panel). These total lysates were also shown by Coomassie blue staining (right panel). (2C) Human sialidase samples present in the lysates of 293T transfected or un-transfected cells (Mock) were treated with or without DFSA prior to SDS-PAGE analyses. The sialidases were also detected by immunoblot analyses of the flag epitope presented in Neu1, Neu2, Neu3 and Neu4. (2D) Labeling of human sialidases was also conducted by incubating PDFSA with sialidase-expressing 293T cells and processed for adduct detection similarly. The sialidases were also detected by immunoblot analyses of the flag epitope presented in Neu1, Neu2, Neu3 and Neu4. (2E) The DFSA-nanH adduct formation was shown to be proportional to the nanH used.

FIG. 3. pH dependent labeling of human sialidases in cell lysates. Lysates of recombinant sialidase expressing cells were collected in different buffers (pH 7.0 or 9.0) and incubated with DFSA (100 μM) to label sialidases.

FIG. 4. Visualization of influenza infected cells using DFSA labeling. Fluorescence image of influenza infected cells that were treated with 30 μM DFSA, biotin-tagged, and stained with FITC-tagged streptavidin. The influenza neuraminidase is shown in green, and influenza nucleoprotein (NP) is shown in red after anti-NP monoclonal antibody staining. Cell nuclei are shown in blue by DAPI staining. Scale bars: 20 μm. Mock: non-infected cells. DAPI: 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole.

FIG. 5. Imaging analyses of sialidase-expressing 293T cells labeled by PDFSA. Live sialidase-expressing 293T cells were treated with PDFSA at 0.2 mM for 15 h. Cells were fixed, permeated, and biotin-tagged for confocal microscopy analyses. PDFSA-mediated sialidase labeling is shown in green, and flag-labeling is shown in red. Scale bars: 10 mm.

FIG. 6. Profiling of sialidase changes in the fibroblasts of sialidosis patients. (6A) Fibroblast cells derived from normal (D551) or sialidosis patients (GM02921 & GM02922) were cultured for in situ sialidase labeling with PDFSA (10 μM). The relevant sialidase labeling signals are marked with stars (left panel). These total lysates were also shown by DB71 staining (right panel). (6B) Fibroblast cells derived from normal (D551) or sialidosis patients (GM02921 & GM02922) were analyzed by Anti-Neu1 antibody. (6C) Cellular sialidase activities were measured using MUNANA as the substrate and compared to the sialidase activities in extracts of cells cultured with or without prior incubation with PDFSA. Values are means±SEM of three independent experiments.

FIG. 7. Detection of influenza virus with DFSA on PVDF membrane. (A) Detection limit of influenza virus by DFSA labeling. (B) Differentiation of oseltavimir-sensitive (WSN274H) and oseltamivir-resistant (WSN274Y) influenza viruses by DFSA staining in the presence of competing OS (osletamivir). PVDF: polyvinylidene fluoride.

FIG. 8. Schematic diagram of a method for synthesis of PDFSA and DFSA.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to irreversible inhibitors for sialidases. The provided irreversible inhibitors form a covalent bond with sialidases and trap the 3-fluorosialyl-enzyme intermediate. The fluorosialyl-enzyme adduct can be ligated with a detectable tagging moiety such as azide-annexed biotin (azido-biotin) via CuAAC for isolation and identification of the sialidase.

The invention further provides ester-protected sialidases inhibitors as the membrane permeable precursor to improve cell uptake. (A. K. Sarkar, et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1995, 92, 3323. C. L. Jacobs, et al. Methods Enzymol. 2000, 327, 260.) The cell-permeable sialidase inhibitors have allowed, for the first time, identification and in situ imaging of the changes of sialidase activity under physiological conditions.

In one aspect, the present disclosure provides novel irreversible sialidase inhibitors of formula (I):

or a salt thereof,

wherein

-   -   F atom at the C3-position is axial or equatorial;     -   R¹ is H or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl;     -   R² is OR^(2O), N₃, N(R^(2N))₂, or guanidine;     -   each instance of R^(2O) is independently hydrogen, optionally         substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an         oxygen protecting group;     -   each instance of R^(2N) is independently hydrogen, optionally         substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or a         nitrogen protecting group;     -   each instance of R^(3a) and R^(3b) is independently hydrogen,         —C(═O)—R^(3r), or an oxygen protecting group;     -   each instance of R^(3r) is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl,         optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl,         or optionally substituted heterocycle, optionally substituted         alkylaryl, optionally substituted alkylheteroaryl, or optionally         substituted alkylheterocycle;

X is selected from the group consisting of —O—, —O(C═O)—, —NH—, —NH(C═O)—, —(C═O)NH—, —O(C═O)NH—, —O(C═S)NH—, —NH(C═O)NH—, and —NH(C═S)NH—;

R⁴ is H, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or -L-Z;

Y is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl or -L-Z;

-   -   each instance of L is independently selected from the group         consisting of —(CH₂)_(n)—, —(CH₂)_(n)C═O—, —(CH₂)_(n)NH—,         —(C═O)(CH₂)_(n)—, —(CH₂)_(n)NH(C═O)—, —(C═O)(CH₂)_(n)NH(C═O)—,         —(CH₂)_(n)SCH₂(C═O)—, and —(CH₂CH₂O)_(n)—;     -   each instance of n is an integer from 1 to 8, inclusive;     -   each instance of Z is a functional group for further ligation;         and     -   provided that the compound is not of the formula

As generally defined herein, R¹ is H or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R¹ is H. In certain embodiments, R¹ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R¹ is methyl, ethyl, or n-propyl.

As generally defined herein, R is OR^(2O), N₃, N(R^(2N))₂, or guanidine. In certain embodiments, R² is OR^(2O), wherein R^(2O) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R² is OH. In certain embodiments, R² is OR^(2O), wherein R^(2O) is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R² is OCH₃ or OC₂H₅. In certain embodiments, R² is OH. In certain embodiments, R² is OR^(2O), wherein R^(2O) is optionally substituted acyl. In certain embodiments, R² is OR^(2O), wherein R^(2O) is acetyl. In certain embodiments, R² is OH. In certain embodiments, R² is OR^(2O), wherein R^(2O) is an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R² is N₃. In certain embodiments, R is N(R^(2N))₂, wherein each instance of R^(2N) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or a nitrogen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R² is NH(R^(2N)), wherein R^(2N) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or a nitrogen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R² is NH₂.

As generally defined herein, R^(3a) is independently hydrogen, —C(═O)—R^(3r), or an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R^(3a) is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R^(3a) is —C(═O)—R^(3r), wherein R^(3r) is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted heterocycle, optionally substituted alkylaryl, optionally substituted alkylheteroaryl, or optionally substituted alkylheterocycle. In certain embodiments, R^(3a) is —C(═O)—R^(3r), wherein R^(3r) is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(3a) is —C(═O)—R^(3r), wherein R^(3r) is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R^(3a) is —C(═O)—R^(3r), wherein R^(3r) is optionally substituted aryl. In certain embodiments, R^(3a) is —C(═O)—R^(3r), wherein R^(3r) is phenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(3a) is —C(═O)—R^(3r), wherein R^(3r) is optionally substituted alkylaryl. In certain embodiments, R^(3a) is —C(═O)—R³, wherein R^(3r) is optionally substituted benzoyl. In certain embodiments, R^(3a) is CH₃CO—, C₂H₅CO—, C₃H₇CO—, t-BuCO—, CF₃CO—, PhCH₂CO—, or C₆H₅CO—.

As generally defined herein, R^(3b) is independently hydrogen, —C(═O)—R^(3r), or an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R^(3b) is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R^(3b) is —C(═O)—R^(3r), wherein R^(3r) is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted heterocycle, optionally substituted alkylaryl, optionally substituted alkylheteroaryl, or optionally substituted alkylheterocycle. In certain embodiments, R^(3b) is —C(═O)—R^(3r), wherein R^(3r) is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(3b) is —C(═O)—R^(3r), wherein R^(3r) is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R^(3b) is —C(═O)—R^(3r), wherein R^(3r) is optionally substituted aryl. In certain embodiments, R^(3b) is —C(═O)—R^(3r), wherein R^(3r) is phenyl. In certain embodiments, R^(3b) is —C(═O)—R^(3r), wherein R^(3r) is optionally substituted alkylaryl. In certain embodiments, R^(3b) is —C(═O)—R^(3r), wherein R^(3r) is optionally substituted benzoyl. In certain embodiments, R^(3b) is CH₃CO—, C₂H₅CO—, C₃H₇CO—, t-BuCO—, CF₃CO—, PhCH₂CO—, or C₆H₅CO—.

As generally defined herein, linker X is selected from the group consisting of —O—, —O(C═O)—, —NH—, —(C═O)NH—, —NH(C═O)—, —O(C═O)NH—, —O(C═S)NH—, —NH(C═O)NH—, and —NH(C═S)NH—. In certain embodiments, X is —O—. In certain embodiments, X is —O(C═O)—. In certain embodiments, X is —NH(C═O)—. In certain embodiments, X is —(C═O)NH—. In certain embodiments, X is —O(C═O)NH—.

As generally defined herein, R⁴ is H, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or -L-Z. In certain embodiments, R⁴ is H. In certain embodiments, R⁴ is -L-Z, wherein L is independently selected from the group consisting of —(CH₂)_(n)—, —(CH₂)_(n)C═O—, —(CH₂)_(n)NH—, —(C═O)(CH₂)_(n)—, —(CH₂)_(n)NH(C═O)—, —(C═O)(CH₂)_(n)NH(C═O)—, —(CH₂)_(n)SCH₂(C═O)—, and —(CH₂CH₂O)_(n)—; each instance of n is an integer from 1 to 8, inclusive; and Z is a functional group for further ligation. In certain embodiments, R⁴ is —(CH₂)_(n)—Z, wherein n is an integer from 1 to 8, inclusive; and Z is a functional group for further ligation. In certain embodiments, R⁴ is —(CH₂)_(n)—Z, wherein n is an integer from 1 to 8, inclusive; and Z is optionally substituted alkyne, optionally substituted alkene, halogen, —N₃, N(R^(N))₂, OR^(O), SR^(S), or CO₂R^(O); wherein each instance of R^(N) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or a nitrogen protecting group; each instance of R^(O) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and each instance of R^(S) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or a sulfur protecting group.

As generally defined herein, Y is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl or -L-Z. In certain embodiments, Y is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, Y is substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, Y is CF₃. In certain embodiments, Y is unsubstituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, Y is methyl, ethyl, or n-propyl. In certain embodiments, Y is -L-Z, wherein L is independently selected from the group consisting of —(CH₂)_(n)—, —(CH₂)_(n)C═O—, —(CH₂)_(n)NH—, —(C═O)(CH₂)_(n)—, —(CH₂)_(n)NH(C═O)—, —(C═O)(CH₂)_(n)NH(C═O)—, —(CH₂)_(n)SCH₂(C═O)—, and —(CH₂CH₂O)_(n)—; each instance of n is an integer from 1 to 8, inclusive; and Z is a functional group for further ligation. In certain embodiments, Y is —(CH₂)_(n)—Z, wherein n is an integer from 1 to 8, inclusive; and Z is a functional group for further ligation. In certain embodiments, Y is —(CH₂)_(n)—Z, wherein n is an integer from 1 to 8, inclusive; and Z is optionally substituted alkyne, optionally substituted alkene, halogen, —N₃, N(R^(N))₂, OR^(O), SR^(S), or CO₂R^(O); wherein each instance of R^(N) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or a nitrogen protecting group; each instance of R^(O) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and each instance of R^(S) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or a sulfur protecting group.

In one embodiments for the compound of formula (I), Z is optionally substituted alkyne, optionally substituted alkene, halogen, —N₃, N(R^(N))₂, OR^(O), SR^(S), or CO₂R^(O); wherein each instance of R^(N) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or a nitrogen protecting group; each instance of R^(O) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and each instance of R^(S) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or a sulfur protecting group.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula (I) of formula (II-a):

or a salt thereof,

wherein R^(3c) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group.

In certain embodiments, R^(3c) is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R^(3c) is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(3c) is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R^(3c) is optionally substituted acyl. In certain embodiments, R^(3c) is acetyl. In certain embodiments, R^(3c) is an oxygen protecting group.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula (I) of formula (II-b):

or a salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula (I) of formula (II-b1):

or a salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula (I) of formula (II-b2):

or a salt thereof,

wherein R^(y1) is hydrogen, halogen, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl.

As defined herein, R^(y1) is hydrogen, halogen, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(y1) is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R^(y1) is halogen. In certain embodiments, R^(y1) is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(y1) is methyl or ethyl.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula (I) of formula (II-b3):

or a salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula (I) of formula (II-c):

or a salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula (I) of formula (II-c1):

or a salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula (I) of formula (II-c2):

or a salt thereof,

wherein R^(y2) is hydrogen, halogen, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl.

As defined herein, R^(y2) is hydrogen, halogen, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(y2) is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R^(y2) is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(y2) is methyl or ethyl.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula (I) of formula (II-c3):

or a salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the provided compounds have the F atom at the C3 axial position. In some embodiments, the provided compounds have the F atom at the C3 equatorial position.

In another aspect, the invention provides a sialidase protein adduct comprising a compound provided herein. In certain embodiments, the sialidase protein is covalently conjugated to the compound. In certain embodiments, the protein adduct is of the formula

wherein Y, X, R², R^(3a), R^(3b), R⁴ are as defined herein. In certain embodiments, the compound is DFSA-5-yne or DFSA-7-yne. In certain embodiments, the compound is covalently linked to one or more tyrosine (Y) residues within any peptide of SEQ ID NOS: 1-6, wherein the peptide is a fragment of nanA, nanB, nanC, nanJ, nanI or nanH.

In another aspect, the invention provides a detectable conjugate comprising a compound as described herein, wherein the compound is covalently conjugated to a detectable tagging moiety.

In another aspect, the invention provides a detectable sialidase conjugate comprising a sialidase protein adduct as described herein, wherein the sialidase protein adduct is covalently conjugated to a detectable tagging moiety.

The detectable tagging moiety is a functional group that enables detection of the entity to which it is conjugated to. The provided detectable conjugates have a detectable tagging moiety covalently conjugated to the compound or sialidase conjugate as described herein. The provided detectable conjugates can be ascertained for their existence and presence by detection of the signals generated from the detectable tagging moiety. The detection of the signals can be conducted by any of the chemical or physical means such as imaging or recordation of signals. In certain embodiments, the signals are detected by the streptavidin-specific reporting signals.

Exemplary detectable tagging moieties include, but are not necessarily limited to, fluorescent molecules (e.g., autofluorescent molecules, molecules that fluoresce upon contact with a reagent, etc.), radioactive labels (e.g., ¹¹¹In, ¹²⁵I, ¹³¹I, ²¹²B, ⁹⁰Y, ¹⁸⁶Rh, and the like); biotin (e.g., to be detected through reaction of biotin and avidin); fluorescent tags; imaging reagents (e.g., those described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,741,900 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,326,856), and the like. Detectable labels also include peptides or polypeptides that can be detected by antibody binding, e.g., by binding of a detectably labeled antibody or by detection of bound antibody through a sandwich-type assay. Also suitable for use are quantum dots (e.g., detectably labeled semiconductor nanocrystals, such as fluorescently labeled quantum dots, antibody-conjugated quantum dots, and the like). See, e.g., Dubertret et al. 2002 Science 298:759-1762; Chan et al. (1998) Science 281:2016-2018; U.S. Pat. No. 6,855,551; Bruchez et al. (1998) Science 281:2013-2016.

Suitable fluorescent molecules (fluorophores) include, but are not limited to, fluorescein, fluorescein isothiocyanate, succinimidyl esters of carboxyfluorescein, succinimidyl esters of fluorescein, 5-isomer of fluorescein dichlorotriazine, caged carboxyfluorescein-alanine-carboxamide, Oregon Green 488, Oregon Green 514; Lucifer Yellow, acridine Orange, rhodamine, tetramethylrhodamine, Texas Red, propidium iodide, JC-1 (5,5′,6,6′-tetrachloro-1,1′,3,3′-tetraethylbenzimidazoylcarbocyanine iodide), tetrabromorhodamine 123, rhodamine 6G, TMRM (tetramethylrhodamine-, methyl ester), TMRE (tetramethylrhodamine, ethyl ester), tetramethylrosamine, rhodamine B and 4-dimethylaminotetramethylrosamine, green fluorescent protein, blue-shifted green fluorescent protein, cyan-shifted green fluorescent protein, red-shifted green fluorescent protein, yellow-shifted green fluorescent protein, 4-acetamido-4′-isothiocyanatostilbene-2,2′disulfonic acid; acridine and derivatives: acridine, acridine isothiocyanate; 5-(2′-aminoethyl)aminonaphthalene-1-sulfonic acid (EDANS); 4-amino-N-[3-vinylsulfonyl)phenyl]naphth-alimide-3,5 disulfonate; N-(4-anilino-1-naphthyl)maleimide; anthranilamide; 4,4-difluoro-5-(2-thienyl)-4-bora-3a,4a diaza-5-indacene-3-propioni-c acid BODIPY; cascade blue; Brilliant Yellow; coumarin and derivatives: coumarin, 7-amino-4-methylcoumarin (AMC, Coumarin 120), 7-amino-4-trifluoromethylcoumarin (Coumarin 151); cyanine dyes; cyanosine; 4′,6-diaminidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI); 5′,5″-dibromopyrogallol-sulfonaphthalein (Bromopyrogallol Red); 7-diethylamino-3-(4′-isothiocyanatophenyl)-4-methylcoumarin; diethylenetriaamine pentaacetate; 4,4′-diisothiocyanatodihydro-stilbene-2,2′-disulfonic acid; 4,4′-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2′-disulfonic acid; 5-(dimethylamino]naphthalene-1-sulfonyl chloride (DNS, dansylchloride); 4-dimethylaminophenylazophenyl-4′-isothiocyanate (DABITC); eosin and derivatives: eosin, fluorescein, fluorescein isothiocyanate, QFITC, (XRITC); fluorescamine; IR144; IR1446; Malachite Green isothiocyanate; 4-methylumbelli-feroneortho cresolphthalein; nitrotyrosine; pararosaniline; Phenol Red; B-phycoerythrin; o-phthaldialdehyde; pyrene and derivatives: pyrene, pyrene butyrate, succinimidyl 1-pyrene; butyrate quantum dots; Reactive Red 4 (Cibacron™ Brilliant Red 3B-A) rhodamine and derivatives: 6-carboxy-X-rhodamine (ROX), 6-carboxyrhodamine (R6G), lissamine rhodamine B sulfonyl chloride rhodamine (Rhod), rhodamine B, rhodamine 123, rhodamine X isothiocyanate, sulforhodamine B, sulforhodamine 101, sulfonyl chloride derivative of sulforhodamine 101 (Texas Red); N,N,N′,N′-tetramethyl-6-carboxyrhodamine (TAMRA); tetramethyl rhodamine; tetramethyl hodamine isothiocyanate (TRITC); riboflavin; 5-(2′-aminoethyl) aminonaphthalene-1-sulfonic acid (EDANS), 4-(4′-dimethylaminophenylazo)benzoic acid (DABCYL), rosolic acid; CAL Fluor Orange 560; terbium chelate derivatives; Cy 3; Cy 5; Cy 5.5; Cy 7; IRD 700; IRD 800; La Jolla Blue; phthalo cyanine; and naphthalo cyanine, coumarins and related dyes, xanthene dyes such as rhodols, resorufins, bimanes, acridines, isoindoles, dansyl dyes, aminophthalic hydrazides such as luminol, and isoluminol derivatives, aminophthalimides, aminonaphthalimides, aminobenzofurans, aminoquinolines, dicyanohydroquinones, and fluorescent europium and terbium complexes; and the like. Fluorophores of interest are farther described in WO 01/42505 and WO 01/86001.

Suitable fluorescent proteins and chromogenic proteins include, but are not limited to, a green fluorescent protein (GFP), including, but not limited to, a GFP derived from Aequoria victoria or a derivative thereof, e.g., a “humanized” derivative such as Enhanced GFP, which is available commercially, e.g., from Clontech, Inc.; a GFP from another species such as Renilla reniformis, Renilla mulleri, or Ptilosarcus guernyi, as described in, e.g., WO 99/49019 and Peelle et al. (2001) J. Protein Chem. 20:507-519; “humanized” recombinant GFP (hrGFP) (Stratagene); any of a variety of fluorescent and colored proteins from Anthozoan species, as described in, e.g., Matz et al. (1999) Nature Biotechnol. 17:969-973; and the like.

Suitable epitope tags include, but are not limited to, hemagglutinin; FLAG; FLAG-C; a metal ion affinity tag such as a polyhistidine tag (e.g., His₆), and the like.

Suitable imaging agents include positive contrast agents and negative contrast agents. Suitable positive contrast agents include, but are not limited to, gadolinium tetraazacyclododecanetetraacetic acid (Gd-DOTA); Gadolinium-diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (Gd-DTPA); Gadolinium-1,4,7-tris(carbonylmethyl)-10-(2′-hydroxypropyl)-1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane (Gd-HP-DO3A); Manganese(II)-dipyridoxal diphosphate (Mn-DPDP); Gd-diethylenetriaminepentaacetate-bis(methylamide) (Gd-DTPA-BMA); and the like. Suitable negative contrast agents include, but are not limited to, a superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) imaging agent; and a perfluorocarbon, where suitable perfluorocarbons include, but are not limited to, fluoroheptanes, fluorocycloheptanes, fluoromethylcycloheptanes, fluorohexanes, fluorocyclohexanes, fluoropentanes, fluorocyclopentanes, fluoromethylcyclopentanes, fluorodimethylcyclopentanes, fluoromethylcyclobutanes, fluorodimethylcyclobutanes, fluorotrimethylcyclobutanes, fluorobutanes, fluorocyclobutanse, fluoropropanes, fluoroethers, fluoropolyethers, fluorotriethylamines, perfluorohexanes, perfluoropentanes, perfluorobutanes, perfluoropropanes, sulfur hexafluoride, and the like.

In certain embodiments, the detectable tagging moiety comprises a label. In certain embodiments, the label is a fluorophore. In certain embodiments, the label is of the formula

wherein L^(a) is optionally substituted alkylene; optionally substituted alkenylene; optionally substituted alkynylene; optionally substituted heteroalkylene; optionally substituted heteroalkenylene; optionally substituted heteroalkynylene; optionally substituted arylene; optionally substituted heteroarylene; or optionally substituted acylene.

In certain embodiments, the label is of the formula

wherein

L^(a) is defined herein; and

each instance of R^(t) is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted C¹⁻⁶ alkyl, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, or optionally substituted heterocycle.

As generally defined herein, L^(a) is optionally substituted alkylene; optionally substituted alkenylene; optionally substituted alkynylene; optionally substituted heteroalkylene; optionally substituted heteroalkenylene; optionally substituted heteroalkynylene; optionally substituted arylene; optionally substituted heteroarylene; or optionally substituted acylene. In certain embodiments, L^(a) is an optionally substituted alkylene. In certain embodiments, L^(a) is an unsubstituted alkylene. In certain embodiments, L^(a) is —CH₂—. In certain embodiments, L^(a) is —(CH₂)₂—. In certain embodiments, L^(a) is —(CH₂)₃—. In certain embodiments, L^(a) is —(CH₂)₄—. In certain embodiments, L^(a) is —(CH₂)₅—.

As generally defined herein, R^(t) is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, or optionally substituted heterocycle. In certain embodiments, R^(t) is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R^(s) is halogen. In certain embodiments, R^(t) is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(t) is methyl or ethyl.

In certain embodiments, the provided detectable conjugates are of formula (X-a), (X-b), (XI-a) or (XI-b):

or a salt thereof,

wherein

-   -   F atom at the C3-position is axial or equatorial;     -   R^(K) is H, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or a sialidase         protein;     -   R², R^(3a), R^(3b), and X are as defined herein;     -   R^(4a) is H, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or an optionally         substituted acyl;     -   Y^(a) is H or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl;     -   each instance of R^(p) and R^(q) is independently hydrogen,         optionally substituted aliphatic; optionally substituted         heteroaliphatic; substituted or unsubstituted aryl; optionally         substituted heteroaryl; optionally substituted acyl; a resin; a         protein; a reporter; a label optionally joined by a linker         L^(a), wherein the linker L^(a) is optionally substituted         alkylene; optionally substituted alkenylene; optionally         substituted alkynylene; optionally substituted heteroalkylene;         optionally substituted heteroalkenylene; optionally substituted         heteroalkynylene; optionally substituted arylene; optionally         substituted heteroarylene; or optionally substituted acylene.

As generally defined herein, R^(K) is H, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or a sialidase protein. In certain embodiments, R^(K) is H. In certain embodiments, R^(K) is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(K) is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments, R^(K) is a sialidase protein.

As generally defined herein, R^(4a) is H, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or an optionally substituted acyl. In certain embodiments, R^(4a) is H. In certain embodiments, R^(4a) is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^(4a) is methyl, ethyl, or n-propyl. In certain embodiments, R^(4a) is an optionally substituted acyl. In certain embodiments, R^(4a) is an optionally substituted acetyl.

In certain embodiments of formula (X-a), (X-b), (XI-a) or (XI-b), X is O and R^(4a) is H, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or an optionally substituted acyl acyl. In certain embodiments of formula (X-a), (X-b), (XI-a) or (XI-b), X is O and R^(4a) is H. In certain embodiments of formula (X-a), (X-b), (XI-a) or (XI-b), X is O and R^(4a) is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments of formula (X-a), (X-b), (XI-a) or (XI-b), X is O and R^(4a) is methyl or ethyl. In certain embodiments of formula (X-a), (X-b), (XI-a) or (XI-b), X is O and R^(4a) is optionally substituted acyl. In certain embodiments of formula (X-a), (X-b), (XI-a) or (XI-b), X is O and R^(4a) is acetyl.

As generally defined herein, Y^(a) is H or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, Y^(a) is H. In certain embodiments, Y^(a) is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, Y^(a) is methyl, ethyl, or n-propyl.

As generally defined herein, R^(p) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted aliphatic; optionally substituted heteroaliphatic; substituted or unsubstituted aryl; optionally substituted heteroaryl; optionally substituted acyl; a resin; a protein; a reporter; a label optionally joined by a linker L^(a), wherein the linker L^(a) is optionally substituted alkylene; optionally substituted alkenylene; optionally substituted alkynylene; optionally substituted heteroalkylene; optionally substituted heteroalkenylene; optionally substituted heteroalkynylene; optionally substituted arylene; optionally substituted heteroarylene; or optionally substituted acylene. In certain embodiments, R^(p) is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R^(p) is a reporter. In certain embodiments, R^(p) is a reporter joined by linker L^(a), wherein L^(a) is defined herein. In certain embodiments, R^(p) is a label. In certain embodiments, R^(p) is a label joined by linker L^(a), wherein L^(a) is defined herein.

As generally defined herein, R^(q) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted aliphatic; optionally substituted heteroaliphatic; substituted or unsubstituted aryl; optionally substituted heteroaryl; optionally substituted acyl; a resin; a protein; a reporter; a label optionally joined by a linker L^(a), wherein the linker L^(a) is optionally substituted alkylene; optionally substituted alkenylene; optionally substituted alkynylene; optionally substituted heteroalkylene; optionally substituted heteroalkenylene; optionally substituted heteroalkynylene; optionally substituted arylene; optionally substituted heteroarylene; or optionally substituted acylene. In certain embodiments, R^(q) is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R^(q) is a reporter. In certain embodiments, R^(q) is a reporter joined by linker L^(a), wherein L^(a) is defined herein. In certain embodiments, R^(q) is a label. In certain embodiments, R^(q) is a label joined by linker L^(a), wherein L^(a) is defined herein.

In certain embodiments, R^(p) is hydrogen and R^(q) is a reporter or a label optionally joined by a linker L^(a). In certain embodiments, R^(q) is hydrogen and R^(p) is a reporter or a label optionally joined by a linker L^(a).

In certain embodiments, the provided detectable conjugates are of one of the formulae:

In another aspect, the invention provides a method for detecting presence of a sialidase, the method comprising:

(a) contacting a sample suspected of comprising a sialidase with a compound as described herein;

(c) adding a reporter; and

(c) detecting a signal,

wherein presence of a signal indicates the presence of the sialidase in the sample.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method for detecting presence of a sialidase, the method comprising:

(a) contacting a sample suspected of comprising a sialidase with a detectable conjugate;

(c) adding a reporter; and

(c) detecting a signal,

wherein presence of a signal indicates the presence of the sialidase in the sample.

In certain embodiments, the sialidase is intracellular. In certain embodiments, the detectable conjugate comprises PDFSA-5-yne (IV) or PDFSA-7-yne (VII):

a derivative, conjugate or ester thereof. In certain embodiments, the sample is from a mammal, fowl, or fish. In certain embodiments, the sample is from a human. In certain embodiments, the sample is suspected of containing a pathogen. In certain embodiments, the sample contains a bacterium, virus, protozo, or a fungus.

As generally used herein, the sialidase is a human, viral or bacterial sialidase. In certain embodiments, the sialidase is a human sialidase. In certain embodiments, the sialidase is an influenza virus neuraminidase (NA). In certain embodiments, the sialidase is a human sialidase selected from the group consisting of Neu1, Neu2, Neu3 and Neu4. In certain embodiments, the sialidase is a bacterial sialidase selected from the group consisting of nanA, nanB, nanC, nanJ, nanI, and nanH.

In certain embodiments, the method further comprises imaging the intracellular locations of sialidases in a cell.

As generally used herein, the reporter refers to a chemical entity capable of forming a detectable tagging moiety with a target molecule, adduct, or conjugate. In some embodiments, the target molecule can be any compound as described herein or any a sialidase-compound conjugate. In certain embodiments, the reporter reacts with the compound or sialidase-compound conjugate via click reaction to introduce a detectable tagging moiety to the compound or sialidase-compound conjugate.

Click chemistry is a chemical approach introduced by Sharpless in 2001 and describes chemistry tailored to generate substances quickly and reliably by joining small units together. See, e.g., Kolb, Finn and Sharpless Angewandte Chemie International Edition (2001) 40: 2004-2021; Evans, Australian Journal of Chemistry (2007) 60: 384-395). Exemplary coupling reactions (some of which may be classified as “Click chemistry”) include, but are not limited to, formation of esters, thioesters, amides (e.g., such as peptide coupling) from activated acids or acyl halides; nucleophilic displacement reactions (e.g., such as nucleophilic displacement of a halide or ring opening of strained ring systems); azide-alkyne Huisgon cycloaddition; thiol-yne addition; imine formation; and Michael additions (e.g., maleimide addition). In certain embodiments, the click reaction is carried out in the presence of copper (Kolb, et al., Angew Chem. Int. Ed., 2001, 40, 2004; Rostovtsev et al., Angew Chem. Int. Ed., 2002, 41, 2596; Wu et al, Aldrichimica Acta, 2007, 40, 7).

In certain embodiments, the reporter comprises an azido group. In certain embodiments, the reporter comprises a terminal alkyne. In certain embodiments, the reporter is an azido-biotin.

In certain embodiments, the method further comprises:

(d) contacting a cell with a compound of PDFSA-5-yne (IV), PDFSA-7-yne (VII), or a derivative, or ester thereof;

(e) allowing intracellular esterase to convert the compound to DFSA-5-yne (III) or DFSA-7-yne (VI) respectively;

(f) allowing DFSA-5-yne (III) or DFSA-7-yne (VI) to covalently conjugate to one or more sialidases at an intracellular location in the cell;

(g) adding a reporter;

-   -   (h) obtaining an image of intracellular sialidase distribution.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method for diagnosis of sialidosis, the method comprising:

(a) contacting a test sample from a subject suspected of sialidosis with a compound as described herein;

(b) adding a reporter;

(c) detecting a signal, and

(d) comparing the signal with that from a healthy subject,

wherein a relative reduction of signal in the test sample indicates sialidosis.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method for diagnosis of sialidosis, the method comprising:

(a) contacting a test sample from a subject suspected of sialidosis with a detectable conjugate as described herein;

(b) detecting a signal, and

(d) comparing the signal with that from a healthy subject,

wherein a relative reduction of signal in the test sample indicates sialidosis.

In some embodiments of the diagnosis method, the test sample contains fibroblast. In some embodiments of the diagnosis method, the detectable conjugate comprises PDFSA-5-yne (IV), PDFSA-7-yne (VII), or a derivative, conjugate or ester thereof.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method for diagnosing infection by influenza virus, the method comprising:

(a) contacting a test sample from a subject suspected of influenza virus infection with the compound of any one of claims 1-23;

(b) adding a reporter;

(c) detecting a signal;

wherein the presence of a signal indicates a possibility of infection by influenza virus.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method for diagnosing infection by influenza virus, the method comprising:

(a) contacting a test sample from a subject suspected of influenza virus infection with the detectable conjugate of claim 32;

(b) detecting a signal;

wherein the presence of a signal indicates a possibility of infection by influenza virus.

In certain embodiments of the diagnostic methods, the influenza virus is extracellular. In certain embodiments of the diagnostic methods, the influenza virus is intracellular. In certain embodiments of the diagnostic methods, the detectable conjugate comprises DFSA-5-yne (II) or DFSA-7-yne (VI) or a derivative, conjugate or ester thereof. In certain embodiments of the diagnostic method, the influenza virus is not resistant to oseltamivir (OS). In certain embodiments of the diagnostic method, the influenza virus is sensitive to oseltamivir (OS). In certain embodiments of the diagnostic methods, the influenza virus is resistant to oseltamivir (OS). In certain embodiments, the oseltamivir-resistant influenza virus is H1N1, H1N9, H3N1, H3N2, H5N1, H7N9. In certain embodiments, the oseltamivir-resistant influenza virus is H1N1. In certain embodiments of the diagnostic method, the influenza virus is present at a titer of 10⁴ or higher.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method for imaging sialidase in a live cell, comprising:

incubating a live cell containing sialidase with any compound as described herein under conditions allowing conjugation of the compound to the sialidase,

contacting the sialidase-compound conjugate with a reporter under conditions allowing conjugation of the reporter to the compound, and

detecting a signal released from the reporter that is conjugated to the compound.

In certain embodiments of any of the provided methods, the detectable signal is generated by the label of the detectable conjugate. In certain embodiments of the provided methods, the detectable signal is released from the reporter conjugated with the compound. In certain embodiments, the detectable signal is released from the reporter conjugated with the compound-sialidase adduct. In certain embodiments, the reporter comprises a label. In certain embodiments, the reporter comprises an azido moiety and a label. In certain embodiments, the reporter comprises an alkyne moiety and a label. In certain embodiments, the reporter comprises a biotin moiety and an alkyne moiety. In certain embodiments, the reporter comprises a biotin moiety and an azido moiety. In certain embodiments, the reporter is of the formula

In another aspect, the exemplary syntheses of the provided compounds such as DFSA-5-yne and PDFSA-5-yne comprise the steps of:

(a) reaction of N-(pent-4-ynoyl)-mannosamine (1) (T. L. Hsu, et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2007, 104, 2614.) with 3-fluoropyruvic acid (as the sodium salt) by catalysis of N-acetylneuraminic acid aldolase (Neu5Ac aldolase, EC 4.1.3.3) to yield an adduct 2;

(b) esterification of adduct 2 in methanol in the presence of IR-120 resin (acid form) to give compound 3;

(c) acetylation of compound 3, followed by chromatographic isolation, to give peracetylated ester 4;

(d) selective deacetylation at the anomeric position of compound 4 by using hydrazine acetate to give compound 5;

(e) treatment of compound 5 with diethylaminosulfurtrifluoride (DAST) to give PDFSA-5-yne (α-anomer, 60%) and its β-anomer (30%);

and

(f) deprotection of PDFSA-5-yne under alkaline conditions, followed by purification on a reversed-phase column, to give DFSA-5-yne.

In another aspect, the exemplary synthesis of the provided compounds such as DFSA-7-yne and PDFSA-7-yne further comprise steps:

(g) reaction of D-mannosamine with 3-fluoropyruvic acid (as the sodium salt) by catalysis of N-acetylneuraminic acid aldolase (Neu5Ac aldolase, EC 4.1.3.3) to yield an adduct 6;

(h) esterification of adduct 6 in methanol in the presence of IR-120 resin (acid form) to give compound 7;

(i) acetylation of compound 7, followed by chromatographic isolation, to give peracetylated ester 8;

(j) selective deacetylation at the anomeric position of compound 8 by using hydrazine acetate to give compound 9;

(k) treatment of compound 9 with diethylaminosulfurtrifluoride (DAST) to give compound 10;

(l) treatment of compound 10 with methanesulfonic acid in methanol to give compound 11;

(m) treatment of compound 11 with 4-nitrophenylchloroformate in the presence of sodium bicarbonate to give compound 12;

(n) treatment of compound 12 with 2,2′-dimethoxypropane by acid catalysis, followed by treatment with 4-nitrophenylchloroformate in pyridine to give compound 13;

(o) treatment of compound 13 with propargyl amine in pyridine to give compound 14;

(p) treatment of compound 14 with trifluoroacetic acid to give compound 15;

(q) treatment of compound 15 with acetic anhydride in pyridine to give compound 16;

(r) treatment of compound 16 with acetyl chloride in diisopropylethylamine to give PDFSA-7-yne; and

(s) saponification of PDFSA-7-yne to give DFSA-7-yne.

To examine the feasibility of DFSA-5-yne as an activity-based probe, the inhibition of various sialidases by DFSA-5-yne were evaluated using 2-(4-methylumbelliferyl)-α-D-N-acetylneuraminic acid (MUNANA) as the substrate. The sialidases used in this study are derived from a variety of species, including influenza virus (NA), bacteria (nanA, nanB, nanC, nanJ, nanI and nanH) and human (Neu1, Neu2, Neu3 and Neu4) sialidases.

All tested sialidases were sensitive to DFSA-5-yne with micro- to submicromolar half maximal inhibitory concentrations (Table 1), indicating that DFSA could be a potent activity-based probe for these enzymes. In contrast to the sensitive inhibition by DFSA, the ester-protected analog PDFSA-5-yne did not inhibit these sialidases (data not shown), suggesting that esterification of the hydroxy and carboxy groups in PDFSA prevents bindings to the sialidase active sites.

TABLE 1 IC₅₀ values (μM) of sialidase inhibition by DFSA-5-yne, DANA, Zanamivir, and Oseltamivir.^(a) Sialidase^(b) DFSA-5-yne DANA^(c) Zanamivir Oseltamivir NA 51 ± 24 5.4 ± 1.6 0.005 0.003 Neu1 10.4 ± 2.3  >100 >100 >100 Neu2 26.1 ± 12.8  24 ± 2.8 17 >100 Neu3 5.3 ± 3.2 2.4 ± 0.6 3 >100 Neu4 59.8 ± 1.3  4.3 ± 1.4 30.8 >100 nanA 0.3 ± 0.1 9.3 >100  3.8 ± 2.6 nanB 82 ± 22 25.4 >100 14.2 ± 6.2 nanC 42.8 ± 17.5 >100 >100 >100 nanJ 34.9 ± 4.2  4.5 >100 >100 nanI 25.5 ± 0.6  1.9 77 >100 nanH 354 ± 146 15.7 83 >100 ^(a)A fluorescent substrate, 2′-(4-methylumbelliferyl)-α-D-N-acetylneuraminic acid (MUNANA), was used to determine the IC₅₀ values that are concentrations causing 50% inhibition of different sialidases. ^(b)The sialidases used in this study are NA (influenza neuraminidase from A/WSN/1933/H1N1), Neu1-Neu4 (recombinant sialidases from human), nanA-nanC (recombinant sialidases of S. pneumoniae), and nanJ-nanH (recombinant sialidases from C. perfringens). ^(c)DANA represents 2,3-didehydro-2-deoxy-N-acetylneuraminic acid.

To validate the sialidase labeling by DFSA-5-yne, formation of the fluorosialosyl-enzyme adducts by SDS-PAGE analyses were examined. All the bacterial sialidases formed DFSA adducts that were captured by azido-biotin and detected by the streptavidin specific reporting signals (FIG. 2A).

The influenza neuraminidase located at the surface of influenza virus (A/WSN/1933/H1N1) also formed a DFSA adduct that could be out competed by the neuraminidase inhibitor oseltamivir acid (OS), suggesting that DFSA interacted with neuraminidase at the active site (FIG. 2B).

Similar to the labeling of influenza neuraminidase by DFSA-5-yne, specific DFSA labeling was identified by four human sialidases in the crude extracts of transfected 293T cells (FIG. 2C).

The disclosure reveals that the DFSA labeling of human sialidases were sensitive to pH conditions. Neu1 and Neu3 were poorly labeled at pH 9. For Neu3, weak labeling was observed even at pH 7 (FIG. 3).

Using the bacterial nanH as an example, the DFSA labeled products were roughly proportional to the amounts of sialidase (FIG. 2E).

The disclosure provides LC-MS/MS analyses on the tryptic peptide fragments of the DFSA-labeled sialidases to identify the interacting amino acids. All six bacterial sialidase peptides were found to be labeled by the 3-fluorosialyl moiety at the tyrosine residues (Table 2).

TABLE 2 DFSA-labeled tryptic peptides from different sialidases. Sialidase Tryptic peptide Modified sites nanA ⁷²³FAYNSIQEIGNGEYGIIYEHTEKGQNAYTISFR⁷⁵⁵ Y725 (SEQ ID NO: 1) nanB ⁶²⁸YHYDIDIPSYGYAYSAITEIPNHHIGVIFEK⁶⁵⁸ Y639 and Y641^(a) (SEQ ID NO: 2) nanC ⁷⁰⁸YHHDVDYSNYGYSYSTITEIPNHEIGIMFEK⁷³⁸ Y721 (SEQ ID NO: 3) nanI ⁶⁴⁹IVKPGYYAYSCITE⁷⁶² Y657 (SEQ ID NO: 4) nanJ ⁷⁷⁹TVKPGSFAYSCITEIPDGNIGIFYEGEGAGR⁸⁰⁹ Y787 (SEQ ID NO: 5) nanH ³⁶⁹IGGGYSCISFK³⁷⁹ Y373 (SEQ ID NO: 6) ^(a)The LC-MS/MS analysis showed that DFSA was covalently linked to Tyr639 and Tyr641 in a ratio of 85:15.

For the profiling of intracellular sialidases, the probe needs to be cell permeable. However, being a hydrophilic compound, DFSA-5-yne is poorly permeable to cells. To enhance the cellular uptake, the ester-protected probe, PDFSA-5-yne, was used to test the labeling of intracellular sialidases expressed in 293T cells. In comparison with the sialidase labeling of cell extracts with DFSA-5-yne (FIG. 2C), similar results were observed of sialidase labeling after incubation of live cells with PDFSA-5-yne (FIG. 2D).

The success in sialidase labeling using PDFSA-5-yne prompted us to determine the cellular localizations of the expressed sialidase activities by incubating live cells with PDFSA and examining the cellular location of the sialidase adducts in fixed and permeated cells (FIG. 5). The sialidase activities were detected as green signals through the PDFSA mediated sialidase labeling, the sialidase proteins were detected as red signals by staining with anti-flag antibody.

FIG. 5 shows that the sialidase signals are located in lysosomes for Neu1-/Neu4-, cytosol for Neu2-, and plasma membrane for Neu3-expressing cells, consistent with the previous reports. (T. Miyagi and K. Yamaguchi, Glycobiology 2012, 22, 880. T. Miyagi, et al. Glycoconj. J. 2004, 20, 189.)

Analyses of sialidase activity and Neu1 in expressing cells showed high co-localization at ˜85%. Similar high co-localization was found in Neu2 and Neu3 expressing cells, suggesting that the observed sialidase activity profiling is correlated with the enzyme distribution.

The activity and co-localization for the Neu4 expressing cells is lower at only 68%. The possible explanation is that Neu4 is expressed in long and short isoforms, differing in the presence and absence of a 12-amino-acid sequence at the N-terminus. (V. Seyrantepe, et al. J. Biol. Chem. 2004, 279, 3702. K. Yamaguchi, et al. Biochem. J. 2005, 390, 85. A. Bigi, et al. Glycobiology 2010, 20, 148.) The Neu4 long is mainly located in mitochondria and has the N-terminal flag-tag, while the Neu4 short targets membrane and does not have the flag-tag. The fact that these two expressed Neu4 sialidase forms are different in cellular localizations and flag-antigen expressions could explain the apparent low co-localization observations.

The results of profiling sialidase activity in the four sialidases thus suggest that PDFSA is a useful probe for living cells.

Sialidosis is an inherited lysosomal storage disease usually due to Neu1 deficiency. Neu1 activity differences in fibroblasts of normal and sialydosis patients were examined by live cell labeling using PDFSA-5-yne. The sialidase labeling was significantly reduced in the more sever sialidosis (GM02921) fibroblast cells than the milder sialydosis (GM02922) cells (FIG. 6A). (A. V. Pshezhetsky and M. Potier, J. Biol. Chem. 1996, 271, 28359.)

The results of the sialidase activity difference observed by PDFSA labeling are consistent with the conventional activity measurement of the cell extracts using MUNANA as the substrate (FIG. 6C). The similar sialidase activity determined by adduct formation through PDFSA-5-yne treatment and by MUNANA processing using cell lysates suggest that the intracellular sialidase was effectively modified by adduct formation.

DFSA was also successfully used to image the influenza virus infected cells that express neuraminidase on the cell surface accessible to DFSA labeling (FIG. 4).

To determine the sensitivity of influenza detection using DFSA, DFSA-5-yne with varied quantities of influenza viruses were incubated and then immobilized the viral samples on membrane followed by similar detection procedures used in SDS-PAGE. This procedure allowed the detection of influenza virus present at 10⁴ or higher titers (FIG. 7A).

DFSA-5-yne is shown to bind at the active site of influenza neuraminidase, and the binding can be competitively inhibited by OS (FIG. 7B). It was expected that OS can inhibit the DFSA labeling to oseltamivir-sensitive (OS^(s)) viruses competitively because both compounds bind the active site of neuraminidase. However, for oseltamivir-resistant (OS^(r)) influenza viruses that are the prevailing clinical isolates for H1N1 since 2008, (T. G. Sheu, et al. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2008, 52, 3284.) OS cannot bind the active site of the mutant neuraminidase and should not inhibit the DFSA binding to influenza. Indeed, both OS^(s) and OS^(r) H1N1 influenza viruses were labeled by DFSA in the absence of OS, but only the OS^(r) virus was detectable by DFSA labeling in the presence of competing OS, suggesting the possibility of using DFSA probe to detect drug resistant influenza strains.

The disclosure provides an activity-based sialidase probe DFSA-5-yne by using the 3-fluorosialyl fluoride as the mechanism-based inhibitor and by incorporating an alkyne group for reporter ligation. Biochemical analyses of the DFSA inactivated sialidases by LC-MS/MS analysis showed that the tyrosine residues in the enzyme active site were specifically labeled by DFSA. The ability of DFSA-5-yne to label all sialidases from viral, bacterial, and human enzymes suggests that DFSA-5-yne may be used as a general sialidase probe for various applications.

DFSA-5-yne is advantageous as a general ABPP because of its small size. Introduction of the ester-protected PDFSA-5-yne enhances cell permeable properties and allows the profiling of intracellular sialidases. The ability of PDFSA-5-yne to probe intracellular sialidases using living cells has an added advantage over the labeling using cell lysates, particularly for unstable sialidases. Since sialidases are known to be involved in various diseases, these probes can be useful in developing sialidase-based diagnoses.

EXAMPLES

Without intent to limit the scope of the invention, exemplary instruments, apparatus, methods and their related results according to the embodiments of the present invention are given below. Note that titles or subtitles may be used in the examples for convenience of a reader, which in no way should limit the scope of the invention. Moreover, certain theories are proposed and disclosed herein; however, in no way they, whether they are right or wrong, should limit the scope of the invention so long as the invention is practiced according to the invention without regard for any particular theory or scheme of action.

Example 1 Methods and Materials

Unless otherwise noted, all compounds and reagents were purchased from Acros or Sigma-Aldrich. All chemicals were purchased as reagent grade and used without further purification. N-Acetylneuraminic acid aldolase was purchased from ToYoBo STC. Reactions were monitored with analytical thin-layer chromatography (TLC) in EM silica gel 60 F254 plates and visualized under UV (254 nm) and/or staining with acidic ceric ammonium molybdate or ninhydrin. Flash column chromatography was performed on silica gel 60 Geduran (35-75 μm, EM Science). ¹H NMR spectra were recorded on a Bruker DRX-400 (400 MHz) spectrometer at 20° C. Chemical shifts were assigned according to the CHCl₃ (6=7.24 ppm). ¹³C NMR spectra were obtained using Attached Proton Test (APT) on a Bruker DRX-400 (100 MHz) spectrometer and were reported using the signal of CDCl₃ (6=77.0 ppm of central line) for calibration. Mass spectra were obtained by the analytical services of The Scripps Research Institute (Agilent ESI-TOF) and The Genomics Research Center (Acadmia Sinica) (LTQ Orbitrap XL ETD). Fluorescence spectra were obtained on a Molecular Devices Spectramax M5 spectrometer. Protease inhibitors were purchased from Roche Applied Sciences, PVDF membranes were from Millipore. NuPAGE® Bis-Tris Mini gels (4-12%), PBS and cell culture media and reagents were from Invitrogen. Protein concentration was measured by either BCA protein assay (Thermo Scientific) or Bradford assay (Bio-rad). GM02921 and GM02922 were obtained from the NIGMS Human Genetic Mutant Cell Repository. Chemiluminescence on protein blots was visualized and quantified using FUJI LAS3000 imaging system (Fujifilm). Confocal microscopy of sialidase-expressing 293T cells were obtained using Leica TCS-SP5-MP-SMD.

Example 2 Methyl 5-(pent-4-ynamido)-2,4,7,8,9-penta-O-acetyl-3,5-dideoxy-3-fluoro-D-erythro-α-L-manno-non-2-ulopyranosonate (4)

A mixture of N-4-pentynoylmannosamine (460.0 mg, 1.78 mmol) (Z. Zhou and C. J. Fahrni, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 8862.), 3-fluoropyruvic acid (as the sodium salt, 458.2 mg, 3.56 mmol), NaN₃ (1%, 500 μL), and N-acetylneuraminic acid aldolase (200 U), in potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.4, 0.05 mmol/L, 25.0 mL), was incubated at room temperature for 3 days. The mixture was concentrated. The residue was applied to a Dowex® column (1×2, 200 mesh), and eluted with water and formic acid (0.1-1.0 mol/L) sequentially. Fractions containing the desired product 2 were pooled, and concentrated under reduced pressure. The diastereomeric ratio (axial/equatorial=7:1) 2 was determined by NMR analyses.

To the crude product 2 were added MeOH (30 mL) and ion exchange resin Amberlite® IR 120-H (500 mg). The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 24 h, and filtered through a pad of Celite, giving ester 3. MeOH was removed, and the residue was treated with pyridine (25 mL), DMAP (10.0 mg) and Ac₂O (10 mL). The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 12 h. After that, pyridine was removed under vacuum first and the residue was taken up in EtOAc (100 mL) and washed with 5% citric acid (×3), 10% NaHCO₃ (×3) and brine. The combined organic layers were dried over anhydrous MgSO₄, filtered and concentrated. The single diastereomer 4 (366.6 mg, 35% overall yield) was obtained as white foam after silica gel column chromatography eluted with EtOAc/hexane (4:1). TLC (EtOAc/hexane=3:1) R_(f)=0.31. ¹H-NMR (CDCl₃, 400 MHz) δ 5.66 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 5.55 (d, J=2.4, 10.9, 27.7 Hz, 1H), 5.34 (dd, J=1.9, 5.3 Hz, 1H), 5.11 (m, 1H), 4.92 (dd, J=2.4, 49.1 Hz, 1H), 4.51 (dd, J=2.4, 12.5 Hz, 1H), 4.25 (dd, J=1.3, 10.6 Hz, 1H), 4.17 (dd, J=6.4, 12.5 Hz, 1H), 4.13 (m, 1H), 2.53-2.39 (m, 2H), 2.37-2.26 (m, 2H), 2.16 (s, 3H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 2.07 (s, 3H), 2.01 (s, 3H), 1.99 (s, 3H), 1.97 (t, J=2.5 Hz, 1H). ¹³C-NMR (CDCl₃, 100 MHz) δ 171.2, 170.6, 170.5, 170.3, 170.2, 167.1, 165.1, 95.1 (d, J=29.0 Hz), 86.9 (d, J=184.0 Hz), 82.7, 71.6, 71.1, 69.6, 68.2, 68.1, 68.0, 62.1, 53.5, 45.7, 35.4, 0.8 (2×), 20.7, 20.5, 14.6. ¹⁹F-NMR: (CDCl₃, 282.4 MHz) δ-209.1 (dd, J=28.0, 52.0 Hz) HR-ESI MS calcd for C₂₅H₃₃NO₁₄ [M+H]⁺: 548.1774. found: 548.1770.

Example 3 Methyl 5-(pent-4-vnamido)-4,7,8,9-tetra-O-acetyl-3,5-dideoxy-3-fluoro-D-erythro-α-L-manno-2-non-2-ulopyranosonate (5)

To a solution of compound 4 (165.0 mg, 0.28 mmol) in 10 mL of CH₂Cl₂ was added hydrazine acetate (116.0 mg, 1.26 mmol) in 2.0 mL of MeOH. The mixture was stirred at 0° C. for 8 h, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The product 5 (110.0 mg, 72%) was obtained as an oil after silica gel column chromatography eluted with EtOAc/hexane (4:1). TLC (EtOAc/hexane=3:1) R_(f)=0.31. ¹H-NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃+CD₃OD) δ 5.46 (dd, J=2.4, 4.4 Hz, 1H), 5.39-5.26 (m, 2H), 4.97 (dd, J=2.4, 50 Hz, 1H), 4.76 (m, 1H), 4.46-4.34 (m, 2H), 4.20 (dd, J=7.4, 12.4 Hz, 1H), 3.85 (s, 3H), 2.54-2.40 (m, 2H), 2.36-2.30 (m, 2H), 2.17 (s, 3H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 2.09 (s, 3H), 2.07-2.05 (m, 4H). ¹³C-NMR (100 Hz, CDCl₃+CD₃OD) δ 173.7, 172.4, 171.9, 171.7, 171.6, 168.7, 95.5 (d, J=20.0 Hz), 88.5 (d, J=146.0 Hz), 83.5, 72.6, 71.2, 71.1, 71.0, 70.0, 69.3, 63.6, 53.4, 45.4, 36.1, 21.1 (2×), 21.0, 15.4. ¹⁹F-NMR (CDCl₃, 282.4 MHz) δ-205.3 (dd, J=28.0, 52.0 Hz). HR-ESI MS calcd for C₂₃H₃₁FNO₁₃ [M+H]⁺: 522.1618. found: 522.1211.

Example 4 Methyl 5-(pent-4-vnamido)-4,7,8,9-tetra-O-acetyl-2,3,5-trideoxy-3-fluoro-D-erythro-β-L-manno-non-2-ulopyranosylonate fluoride (PDFSA-5-yne)

To a solution of compound 5 (75.0 mg, 0.14 mmol) in 5 mL of CH₂Cl₂ was added 19 μL (0.19 mmol) of DAST at −30° C., and stirred for 5 h. The reaction was quenched by adding small amount of silica gel and 1.5 mL of MeOH. The mixture was concentrated under reduced pressure. PDFSA-5-yne (α-anomer, 46.0 mg, 60%) and the β-anomer (23.0 mg, 30%) were isolated by silica gel column chromatography eluted with EtOAc/hexane (5:1).

PDFSA-5-yne (α-anomer): TLC (EtOAc/hexane=3:1) R_(f)=0.33. ¹H-NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) 65.79 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 1H), 5.46 (dd, J=10.7, 25.6 Hz, 1H), 5.36-5.28 (m, 1H), 5.10 (ddd, J=2.6, 2.7, 50.7, 1H), 4.34 (d, J=10.9 Hz, 1H), 4.29 (dd, J=1.7, 12.4 Hz, 1H), 4.16 (dd, J=4.2, 12.4 Hz, 1H), 4.08 (m, 1H), 3.87 (s, 3H), 2.52-2.37 (m, 2H), 2.36-2.23 (m, 2H), 2.12 (s, 3H), 2.08 (s, 3H), 2.06 (s, 3H), 1.99 (s, 3H), 1.97 (t, J=2.5 Hz, 1H). ¹³C-NMR (100 Hz, CDCl₃) 6171.3, 170.5 (2×), 170.4, 170.2, 164.3 (d, J=20.0 Hz), 104.5 (dd, J=13.0, 179.0 Hz), 85.4 (dd, J=16.0, 154.0 Hz), 82.7, 72.5, 69.6, 69.0, 68.3 (d, J=5.0 Hz), 67.0, 61.8, 53.7, 45.5 (d, J=3.0 Hz), 35.4, 20.7, 20.6 (2×), 20.5, 14.6. ¹⁹F-NMR: (CDCl₃, 282.4 MHz) δ-123.3 (d, J=12.0 Hz), −217.1 (ddd, J=12.0, 24.0, 52.0 Hz). ESI-HRMS calcd for C₂₃H₃₀F₂NO₁₂ [M+H]: 550.1730. found: 550.1736.

PDFSA-5-yne (β-Anomer): TLC (EtOAc/hexane=3:1) R_(f)=0.37. ¹H-NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) 65.68 (d, J=9.7 Hz, 1H), 5.42 (dd, J=2.1, 6.3 Hz, 1H), 5.38 (m, 1H), 5.25 (m, 1H), 5.10 (dd, J=2.3, 48.6 Hz, 1H), 4.48 (dd, J=2.6, 12.6 Hz, 1H), 4.43 (dd, J=10.5, 20.8 Hz, 1H), 4.32 (d, J=10.7 Hz, 1H), 4.11 (dd, J=10.5, 20.8 Hz, 1H), 3.86 (s, 3H), 2.38-2.53 (m, 2H), 2.23-2.37 (m, 2H), 2.13 (s, 3H), 2.09 (s, 3H), 2.04 (s, 3H), 2.03 (s, 3H), 1.99 (t, J=2.6 Hz, 1H). ¹³C-NMR (100 Hz, CDCl₃) 8171.1, 170.6, 170.5, 170.2, 169.9, 162.6 (d, J=21.0 Hz), 105.0 (dd, J=23.0, 183.0 Hz), 84.6 (dd, J=35.0, 147.0 Hz), 82.84, 72.7 (d, J=2.0 HZ), 72.3 (d, J=2.0 Hz), 69.6, 68.4 (d, J=14.0 Hz), 67.1, 62.1, 53.7, 44.5, 35.4, 20.7 (3×), 20.6, 14.6. ¹⁹F-NMR: (CDCl₃, 282.4 MHz) δ-122.4 (d, J=20.0 Hz), −207.2 (d, J=16.0 Hz).

Example 5 5-(Pent-4-vnamido)-2,3,5-trideoxy-3-fluoro-D-erythro-β-L-manno-non-2-ulopyranosylonic fluoride (DFSA-5-yne)

To a solution of PDFSA-5-yne (42.0 mg, 0.076 mmol) in 5 mL of CH₃OH was added Na₂CO₃ (32.4 mg, 0.31 mmol) at room temperature for 1 h. H₂O (1 mL) was added, and the mixture was left at room for 2 h. The mixture was neutralized by ion exchange resin Amberlite® IR 120-H, and filtered through a pad of Celite. The filtrate was concentrated under reduced pressure, and the crude product was chromatographed on a silica gel 100 reversed-phase C18 column (H₂O to 10% aqueous MeOH) to yield product DFSA (23.7 mg, 85%) as a white foam. ¹H-NMR (400 MHz, D₂O) δ 5.24 (ddd, J=2.5, 2.5, 51.3 Hz, 1H), 4.12-4.37 (m, 2H), 3.82-3.93 (m, 3H), 3.61-3.72 (m, 2H), 2.51-2.60 (m, 4H), 2.42 (s, 1H). ¹³C-NMR (150 Hz, D₂O) δ 175.6, 168.2 (d, J=40.6 Hz), 106.1 (dd, J=15.5, 218.1 Hz), 88.4 (dd, J=18.0, 183.5 Hz), 83.3, 72.7 (d, J=3.3 Hz), 70.3 (d, J=5.6 Hz), 68.6 (dd, J=5.6, 17.8 Hz), 67.8, 63.0, 48.8, 46.8 (d, J=3.3 Hz), 34.6 (d, J=7.1 Hz), 14.5. ¹⁹F-NMR (CDCl₃, 282.4 MHz) δ-121.3 (d, J=12.0 Hz), −218.0 (ddd, J=12, 28, 52 Hz). HR-ESI MS calcd for C₁₄H₂₀F₂NO₈ [M+H]+: 368.1151. found: 368.1152.

Example 6 Cloning of Bacterial Sialidases

The cDNA of sialidases nanA (SP1693), nanB (SP1687) and nanC (SP1326) were amplified by PCR from Streptococcus pneumonia TIGR4 genomic DNA (ATcc ATcc BAA-334). Similarly, the cDNA of sialidases nanH (CPF 0985), nanI (CPF 0721) and nanJ (CPF 0532) were from Clostridium perfringens NCTC 8237 genomic DNA (ATcc 13124D-5) by specific primers (Table S3). The obtained cDNAs were then cloned into modified form of pET47b+ (Novagen, Madison, Wis.) for expressions in E. coli. The hydrophobic regions at the N-terminus of those sialidases predicted to be a signal peptide by SignalIP were not included in the primers during cloning. All these bacterial sialidases were expressed with N-terminal His tag for protein purification and antibody identification.

Example 7 Expression of Sialidase in E. coli and Purification of the Recombinant Sialidases

All sialidase genes were obtained via PCR from genomic DNA or cDNA library by respective primer (Table S3). The PCR products were ligated into the modified form of pET47b vector and confirmed by DNA sequencing. The plasmids with correct sequences were transformed into ArcticExpress/RIL competent cells by chemical transformation method. Single colonies were picked and cultured in TB medium with kanamycin overnight. The cell cultures into fresh TB medium, were induced by 0.1 mM IPTG and to grow at 16° C. for 24 h. E. coli cells were harvested and disrupted in a buffer containing 50 mM sodium phosphate buffer, pH 8.0, 300 mM sodium chloride, and 10 mM imidazole by microfluidizer and clarified by Centrifugation. The expressed sialidases were purified by Ni-NTA agarose. The protein concentration was determined by Qubit Protein Quantitation (Invitrogen, CA), and purity was confirmed by SDS-PAGE.

Example 8 Cloning of Human Sialidase

The cDNA of human sialidases, Neu1, Neu2 and Neu4 were amplified from MGC clone (Clone ID: 40004620 and 40125765, respectively) by PCR and sub-cloned into modified form of expression vector, pCMV-Tag 2 (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.) with N-terminal FLAG tag, whereas Neu1 with both FLAG tags in N- and C-terminals (Clone ID: 3506824) by primer addition. Neu3 cDNA was synthesized according to its sequence (Genbank: BC144059.1) and cloned as other three sialidases. All clones are confirmed by DNA sequencing, and sialidase expressions confirmed by FLAG-specific antibody.

Example 9 Determination of IC₅₀ of DFSA and PDFSA

Sialidase inhibition was determined by mixing inhibitor and neuraminidase for 10 min at room temperature, followed by the addition of 200 μM of substrate MUNANA. Inhibitor IC₅₀ value was determined from the dose-response curves by plotting the percent inhibition of NA activity versus inhibitor concentrations using Graph Pad Prism 4.

Example 10 Membrane Click Reaction

The PVDF membranes were blocked with blocking buffer 5% BSA/PBST (0.1% Tween 20/PBS) and streptavidin blocking buffer 0.02% streptavidin/3% BSA/PBST (0.1% Tween 20/PBS) for 1 h, respectively. The membranes were washed twice with PBS for 5 min. The protein side of the PVDF membrane was faced down to immerse in the click reaction mixture (0.1 mM azido-biotin, 0.1 mM tris-triazole ligand, 1 mM CuSO₄, 2 mM sodium ascorbate; with 1 mL for a blot of a minigel size) and incubated at room temperature for 1 h. After washing with PBST twice, the membrane was probed with peroxidase-conjugated streptavidin for biotin labels on blots. The signals were detected by ECL system.

Example 11 Labeling of Bacteria Sialidase, Influenza Neuraminidase, and Recombinant Human Sialidases

Purified bacteria sialidases (1 μg) were incubated with DFSA (0.1 mM) at room temperature for 1 h, and separated on 4-12% NuPAGE (Invitrogen). 5×105 influenza viruses were incubated with DFSA (0.1 mM) at room temperature for 1 h, and separated on 4-12% NuPAGE (Invitrogen). Sialidase transfectant 293T cells were lysed by different lysis buffers: pH4.5 (1% NP-40, 100 mM NaOAc, 150 mM NaCl, 3 mM KCl, pH 4.5, 1×EDTA-free protease inhibitor cocktail from Roche), pH 7.4 buffer (1% NP-40, 25 mM Tris, 150 mM NaCl, 3 mM KCl, pH 7.4, 1×EDTA-free protease inhibitor cocktail from Roche), and pH 9.0 buffer (1% NP-40, 25 mM Tris, 150 mM NaCl, 3 mM KCl, pH 9.0, 1×EDTA-free protease inhibitor cocktail from Roche). The lysates were collected and incubated with DFSA (0.1 mM) at 37° C. for 1 h. Following incubation, the samples were clarified, and protein concentrations were determined by bicinchoninic acid protein assay kit (Pierce). For each sample, 20 μg total lysate was separated on 4-12% NuPAGE (Invitrogen). After electrophoresis, the gels were blotted onto PVDF membranes (Millipore). Click reactions were performed on the PVDF membranes, and labeling signals were processed and analyzed by chemiluminescence detector.

Example 12 In Situ Labeling of Sialidase Expressing Cells with PDFSA

Sialidase transfectant 293T cells, normal (D551) and sialidosis fibroblasts/(GM02921 and GM02922) were incubated with PDFSA (0.2 mM) at 37° C. for 15 h. Cells were lysed by lysis buffer (1% NP-40, 25 mM Tris, 150 mM NaCl, 3 mM KCl, pH 7.4, 1×EDTA-free protease inhibitor cocktail from Roche) and then incubated on ice for 15 min. Following incubation, the samples were spun at 18,000×g for 15 min. The supernatants were collected, and protein concentrations were determined by bicinchoninic acid protein assay kit (Pierce). For each sample, 50 μg total lysate was loaded and separated on 4-12% NuPAGE (Invitrogen). After transferring proteins onto the PVDF membrane (Millipore), membrane click reaction was performed and labeling signal was analyzed by chemiluminescence detector.

For confocal microscopy analysis, sialidase transfectant 293T cells were seeded onto four-well chamber slices (3×10⁵/mL per well), and were cultivated in penicillin/streptomycin-containing 10% FBS/DMEM. Growth medium was supplemented with PDSFA (0.2 mM) and cultured for 15 h. Cells were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde for 15 min, permeabilized in 0.5% TritonX-100 for 10 min at room temperature, and subjected to the probe labeling reaction consisting 0.1 mM azide-biotin probe/0.1 mM tris-triazole ligand/1 mM CuSO₄/2 mM sodium ascorbate, in PBS, at room temperature for 1 h. Subsequently, the fixed and labeled cells were rinsed with PBS and stained with Dylight 488-conjugated streptavidin (2.5 μg/mL in 0.5% BSA/PBS) at room temperature for 30 min. Recombinant sialidases were detected by Alexa Fluor 594-conjugated anti-FLAG antibody (5 ug/ml in 0.5% BSA/PBS). Fluorescent images were captured by Leica TCS-SP5-MP-SMD.

Example 13 Sialidase Activity Assays

Fibroblasts (from D551, GM02921, and GM02922) were fed with PDFSA (0.2 mM) at 37° C. for 15 h. Fibroblasts were lysed by lysis buffer (1% NP-40, 100 mM NaOAc, 150 mM NaCl, 3 mM KCl, pH 4.5, 1×EDTA-free protease inhibitor cocktail from Roche) and then incubated on ice for 15 min. Following incubation, the samples were spun at 18,000×g for 15 min. The supernatants were collected. One hundred μg total lysates in a total volume of 0.1 mL were incubated with MUNANA (0.1 mM) at 37° C. for 1 h. The reaction was terminated with 0.1 mL of 0.85 M glycine-carbonate buffer (pH 9.3), and kept at 4° C. before reading fluorescence. Fluorescence was determined on a fluorometer with excitation at 365 nm and emission at 450 nm.

Example 14 Visualization of Flu Infected Cells Using DFSA

The human kidney cell line, MDCK, were seeded onto six-well plates (3×10^(5/2) ml per well) containing glass coverslips, and were cultivated in 2% FCS/DMEM, and 1% P/S antibiotic-antimycotic. Cells were infected with 0.03 multiplicity of infection (MOI) of flu virus for 20 h at 35° C. and treated with 30 μM of DFSA for 1 h at 35° C. Cells on coverslips were fixed with methanol for 3 min, then permeabilized with 0.05% triton-X100 in PBS for 1 min. Cells were subjected to the probe labeling reaction (0.1 mM azide-biotin probe, 0.1 mM tris-triazole ligand, 1 mM CuSO₄, 2 mM sodium ascorbate in PBS) at room temperature for 30 min. Subsequently, the fixed and labeled cells were rinsed with PBS and stained with anti-NP monoclonal antibody (500 fold dilution in PBS), streptavidin-DyLight 488 (2 g/mL in 5% BSA/PBS), and 0.6 μg/mL of Alexa Fluor® 594 labeled Goat Anti-Mouse IgG (Invitrogen cat#A11020) at room temperature for 30 min. DAPI (10 g/mL in PBS) was used to stain nuclei. Fluorescent images were captured by Leica upright microscope DM 6000B.

Example 15 Quick Detection of OS Susceptibility of Influenza Viruses on Membrane

Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane mounted on Bio-Dot SF of Bio-Rad Inc. (Bio-Rad, CA, USA) was wetted with methanol. Influenza viral samples that were previously treated for 1 h with either 30 μM DFSA or 30 μM DFSA plus OS were introduced to neighboring slots by suction. The membranes were blotted using PBS with 3% BSA and then PBS with streptavidin 5 μg/mL to lower the endogenous biotin noise. Following the click reaction and then incubated with horseradish peroxidase conjugated streptavidin from KPL (Gaithersburg, Md., USA) according to the manufacturer's instruction. After additional washing using PBS with 0.05% tween-20, horseradish peroxidase substrate ECL (Calbiochem®) was added for chemiluminescent development.

Example 16 Mass Spectrometric Analyses of Tryptic Peptides of DFSA-Labeled Sialidases

DFSA-labeled sialidases (5 μg) were dissolved in 100 mM ammonium bicarbonate and 8 mM dithiothreitol, and incubated at 65° C. for 1 h. To the protein solutions were added 4 μL of 40 mM iodoacetamide, and incubated in dark at room temperature for 1 h. The protein solutions were added 1 μL of 40 mM dithiothreitol at room temperature for 1 h. The sialidases samples were treated with trypsin at neutral pH for 17 h, heated to inactivate trypsin, and dried for MS analysis.

EQUIVALENTS AND SCOPE

In the claims articles such as “a,” “an,” and “the” may mean one or more than one unless indicated to the contrary or otherwise evident from the context. Claims or descriptions that include “or” between one or more members of a group are considered satisfied if one, more than one, or all of the group members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process unless indicated to the contrary or otherwise evident from the context. The invention includes embodiments in which exactly one member of the group is present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process. The invention includes embodiments in which more than one, or all of the group members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process.

Furthermore, the invention encompasses all variations, combinations, and permutations in which one or more limitations, elements, clauses, and descriptive terms from one or more of the listed claims is introduced into another claim. For example, any claim that is dependent on another claim can be modified to include one or more limitations found in any other claim that is dependent on the same base claim. Where elements are presented as lists, e.g., in Markush group format, each subgroup of the elements is also disclosed, and any element(s) can be removed from the group. It should it be understood that, in general, where the invention, or aspects of the invention, is/are referred to as comprising particular elements and/or features, certain embodiments of the invention or aspects of the invention consist, or consist essentially of, such elements and/or features. For purposes of simplicity, those embodiments have not been specifically set forth in haec verba herein. It is also noted that the terms “comprising” and “containing” are intended to be open and permits the inclusion of additional elements or steps. Where ranges are given, endpoints are included. Furthermore, unless otherwise indicated or otherwise evident from the context and understanding of one of ordinary skill in the art, values that are expressed as ranges can assume any specific value or sub-range within the stated ranges in different embodiments of the invention, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit of the range, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

This application refers to various issued patents, published patent applications, journal articles, and other publications, all of which are incorporated herein by reference. If there is a conflict between any of the incorporated references and the instant specification, the specification shall control. In addition, any particular embodiment of the present invention that falls within the prior art may be explicitly excluded from any one or more of the claims. Because such embodiments are deemed to be known to one of ordinary skill in the art, they may be excluded even if the exclusion is not set forth explicitly herein. Any particular embodiment of the invention can be excluded from any claim, for any reason, whether or not related to the existence of prior art.

Those skilled in the art will recognize or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation many equivalents to the specific embodiments described herein. The scope of the present embodiments described herein is not intended to be limited to the above Description, but rather is as set forth in the appended claims. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that various changes and modifications to this description may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the present invention, as defined in the following claims.

REFERENCES

-   G. C. Adam, E. J. Sorensen, B. F. Cravatt, Nat. Biotechnol. 2002,     20, 805-809. Proteomic profiling of mechanistically distinct enzyme     classes using a common chemotype. -   T. Angata, A. Varki, Chem. Rev. 2002, 102, 439-469. Chemical     diversity in the sialic acids and related alpha-keto acids: an     evolutionary perspective. -   A. Bigi, L. Morosi, C. Pozzi, M. Forcella, G. Tettamanti, B.     Venerando, E. Monti, P. Fusi, Glycobiology 2010, 20, 148-157. Human     sialidase NEU4 long and short are extrinsic proteins bound to outer     mitochondrial membrane and the endoplasmic reticulum, respectively. -   H. B. Bosmann, T. C. Hall, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1974, 71,     1833-1837. Enzyme activity in invasive tumors of human breast and     colon. -   S. Buchini, A. Buschiazzo, S. G. Withers, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.     2008, 47, 2700-2703. A new generation of specific Trypanosoma cruzi     trans-sialidase inhibitors. -   M. J. Evans, B. F. Cravatt, Chem. Rev. 2006, 106, 3279-3301.     Mechanism-based profiling of enzyme families. -   D. Greenbaum, A. Baruch, L. Hayrapetian, Z. Darula, A.     Burlingame, K. F. Medzihradszky, M. Bogyo, Mol. Cell. Proteomics     2002, 1, 60-68. Chemical approaches for functionally probing the     proteome. -   G. T. van der Horst, G. M. Mancini, R. Brossmer, U. Rose, F. W.     Verheijen, J. Biol. Chem. 1990, 265, 10801-10804. Photoaffinity     labeling of a bacterial sialidase with an aryl azide derivative of     sialic acid. -   T. L. Hsu, S. R. Hanson, K. Kishikawa, S. K. Wang, M. Sawa, C. H.     Wong, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2007, 104, 2614-2619. Alkynyl sugar     analogs for the labeling and visualization of glycoconjugates in     cells. -   C. L. Jacobs, K. J. Yarema, L. K. Mahal, D. A. Nauman, N. W.     Charters, C. R. Bertozzi, Methods Enzymol. 2000, 327, 260-275.     Metabolic labeling of glycoproteins with chemical tags through     unnatural sialic acid biosynthesis. -   K. A. Kalesh, L. P. Tan, K. Lu, L. Gao, J. Wang, S. Q. Yao, Chem.     Commun. 2010, 46, 589-591. Peptide-based activity-based probes     (ABPs) for target-specific profiling of protein tyrosine     phosphatases (PTPs). -   R. Kannappan, M. Ando, K. Furuhata, Y. Uda, Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2008,     31, 352-356. Photoaffinity labeling of sialidase with a     biotin-conjugated phenylaminodiazirine derivative of     2,3-didehydro-2-deoxy-N-acetylneuraminic acid. -   D. Kidd, Y. Liu, B. F. Cravatt, Biochemistry 2001, 40, 4005-4015.     Profiling serine hydrolase activities in complex proteomes. -   H. C. Kolb, K. B. Sharpless, Drug Discov Today 2003, 8, 1128-1137.     The growing impact of click chemistry on drug discovery. -   Y. Liu, M. P. Patricelli, B. F. Cravatt, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA     1999, 96, 14694-14699. Activity-based protein profiling: the serine     hydrolases. -   C. P. Lu, C. T. Ren, Y. N. Lai, S. H. Wu, W. M. Wang, J. Y.     Chen, L. C. Lo, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2005, 44, 6888-6892. Design of     a mechanism-based probe for neuraminidase to capture influenza     viruses. -   T. Miyagi, T. Wada, K. Yamaguchi, K. Hata, Glycoconj. J. 2004, 20,     189-198. Sialidase and malignancy: a minireview. -   T. Miyagi, Proc. Jpn. Acad. Ser. B Phys Biol. Sci. 2008, 84,     407-418. Aberrant expression of sialidase and cancer progression. -   T. Miyagi, T. Wada, K. Yamaguchi, K. Hata, K. Shiozaki, J. Biochem.     2008, 144, 279-285. Plasma membrane-associated sialidase as a     crucial regulator of transmembrane signaling. -   T. Miyagi, K. Yamaguchi, Glycobiology 2012, 22, 880-896. Mammalian     sialidases: Physiological and pathological roles in cellular     functions. -   MMWR. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2008, 57, 692-697. Influenza     activity—United States and worldwide, 2007-08 season. -   E. Monti, E. Bonten, A. D'Azzo, R. Bresciani, B. Venerando, G.     Borsani, R. Schauer, G. Tettamanti, Adv. Carbohydr. Chem. Biochem.     2010, 64, 403-479. Sialidases in vertebrates: a family of enzymes     tailored for several cell functions. -   M. P. Patricelli, A. K. Szardenings, M. Liyanage, T. K.     Nomanbhoy, M. Wu, H. Weissig, A. Aban, D. Chun, S. Tanner, J. W.     Kozarich, Biochemistry 2007, 46, 350-358. Functional interrogation     of the kinome using nucleotide acyl phosphates. -   A. V. Pshezhetsky, M. Potier, J. Biol. Chem. 1996, 271, 28359-28365.     Association of N-acetylgalactosamine-6-sulfate sulfatase with the     multienzyme lysosomal complex of beta-galactosidase, cathepsin A,     and neuraminidase. Possible implication for intralysosomal     catabolism of keratan sulfate. -   V. V. Rostovtsev, L. G. Green, V. V. Fokin, K. B. Sharpless, Angew.     Chem. Int. Ed. 2002, 41, 2596-2599. A stepwise Huisgen cycloaddition     process: copper(I)-catalyzed regioselective “ligation” of azides and     terminal alkynes. -   R. K. Y. M. Saito, Biochemistry and function of sialidases, Plenum     Press: New York, 1995. -   C. M. Salisbury, B. F. Cravatt, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2007,     104, 1171-1176. Activity-based probes for proteomic profiling of     histone deacetylase complexes. -   A. K. Sarkar, T. A. Fritz, W. H. Taylor, J. D. Esko, Proc. Natl.     Acad. Sci. USA 1995, 92, 3323-3327. Disaccharide uptake and priming     in animal cells: inhibition of sialyl Lewis X by acetylated Gal beta     1→4 GlcNAc beta-O-naphthalenemethanol. -   C. L. Schengrund, D. S. Jensen, A. Rosenberg, J. Biol. Chem. 1972,     247, 2742-2746. Localization of sialidase in the plasma membrane of     rat liver cells. -   E. Severi, D. W. Hood, G. H. Thomas, Microbiology 2007, 153,     2817-2822. Sialic acid utilization by bacterial pathogens. -   V. Seyrantepe, K. Landry, S. Trudel, J. A. Hassan, C. R.     Morales, A. V. Pshezhetsky, J. Biol. Chem. 2004, 279, 37021-37029.     Neu4, a novel human lysosomal lumen sialidase, confers normal     phenotype to sialidosis and galactosialidosis cells. -   T. G. Sheu, V. M. Deyde, M. Okomo-Adhiambo, R. J. Garten, X.     Xu, R. A. Bright, E. N. Butler, T. R. Wallis, A. I. Klimov, L. V.     Gubareva, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2008, 52, 3284-3292.     Surveillance for neuraminidase inhibitor resistance among human     influenza A and B viruses circulating worldwide from 2004 to 2008. -   S. A. Sieber, S. Niessen, H. S. Hoover, B. F. Cravatt, Nat. Chem.     Biol. 2006, 2, 274-281. Proteomic profiling of metalloprotease     activities with cocktails of active-site probes. -   K. A. Stubbs, A. Scaffidi, A. W. Debowski, B. L. Mark, R. V.     Stick, D. J. Vocadlo, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 327-335.     Synthesis and use of mechanism-based protein-profiling probes for     retaining beta-D-glucosaminidases facilitate identification of     Pseudomonas aeruginosa NagZ. -   G. H. Thomas, Disorders of Glycoprotein Degradation: α-Mannosidosis,     β-Mannosidosis, Fucosidosis, and Sialidosis, 8 ed., McGraw-Hill: New     York, 2001. -   C. S. Tsai, Y. K. Li, L. C. Lo, Org. Lett. 2002, 4, 3607-3610.     Design and synthesis of activity probes for glycosidases. -   A. Varki, Nature 2007, 446, 1023-1029. Glycan-based interactions     involving vertebrate sialic-acid-recognizing proteins. -   M. V. Vinogradova, L. Michaud, A. V. Mezentsev, K. E. Lukong, M.     El-Alfy, C. R. Morales, M. Potier, A. V. Pshezhetsky, Biochem. J.     1998, 330, 641-650. Molecular mechanism of lysosomal sialidase     deficiency in galactosialidosis involves its rapid degradation. -   D. J. Vocadlo, C. R. Bertozzi, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2004, 43,     5338-5342. A strategy for functional proteomic analysis of     glycosidase activity from cell lysates. -   T. Wada, K. Hata, K. Yamaguchi, K. Shiozaki, K. Koseki, S.     Moriya, T. Miyagi, Oncogene 2007, 26, 2483-2490. A crucial role of     plasma membrane-associated sialidase in the survival of human cancer     cells. -   C. Walls, B. Zhou, Z. Y. Zhang, Methods Mol. Biol. 2009, 519,     417-429. Activity-based protein profiling of protein tyrosine     phosphatases. -   A. G. Watts, I. Damager, M. L. Amaya, A. Buschiazzo, P.     Alzari, A. C. Frasch, S. G. Withers, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125,     7532-7533. Trypanosoma cruzi trans-sialidase operates through a     covalent sialyl-enzyme intermediate: tyrosine is the catalytic     nucleophile. -   M. D. Witte, W. W. Kallemeijn, J. Aten, K. Y. Li, A.     Strijland, W. E. Donker-Koopman, A. M. van den Nieuwendijk, B.     Bleijlevens, G. Kramer, B. I. Florea, B. Hooibrink, C. E. Hollak, R.     Ottenhoff, R. G. Boot, G. A. van der Marel, H. S. Overkleeft, J. M.     Aerts, Nat. Chem. Biol. 2010, 6, 907-913. Ultrasensitive in situ     visualization of active glucocerebrosidase molecules. -   K. Yamaguchi, K. Hata, K. Koseki, K. Shiozaki, H. Akita, T. Wada, S.     Moriya, T. Miyagi, Biochem. J. 2005, 390, 85-93. Evidence for     mitochondrial localization of a novel human sialidase (NEU4).

All publications and patent applications cited in this specification are herein incorporated by reference as if each individual publication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

Although the foregoing invention has been described in some detail by way of illustration and example for purposes of clarity of understanding, it will be readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art in light of the teachings of this invention that certain changes and modifications may be made thereto without departing from the spirit or scope of the appended claims. 

1-79. (canceled)
 80. A compound of formula (I):

or a salt thereof, wherein F atom at the C3-position is axial or equatorial; R¹ is H or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; R² is OR^(2O), N₃, N(R^(2N))₂, or guanidine; each instance of R^(2O) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group; each instance of R^(2N) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or a nitrogen protecting group; each instance of R^(3a) and R^(3b) is independently hydrogen, —C(═O)—R^(3r), or an oxygen protecting group; each instance of R^(3r) is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, or optionally substituted heterocycle, optionally substituted alkylaryl, optionally substituted alkylheteroaryl, or optionally substituted alkylheterocycle; X is selected from the group consisting of —O—, —O(C═O)—, —NH—, —NH(C═O)—, —(C═O)NH—, —O(C═O)NH—, —O(C═S)NH—, —NH(C═O)NH—, and —NH(C═S)NH—; R⁴ is H, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or -L-Z; Y is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl or -L-Z; each instance of L is independently selected from the group consisting of —(CH₂)_(n)—, —(CH₂)_(n)C═O—, —(CH₂)_(n)NH—, —(C═O)(CH₂)_(n)—, —(CH₂)_(n)NH(C═O)—, —(C═O)(CH₂)_(n)NH(C═O)—, —(CH₂)_(n)SCH₂(C═O)—, and —(CH₂CH₂O)_(n)—; each instance of n is an integer from 1 to 8, inclusive; each instance of Z is a functional group for further ligation; and provided that the compound is not of the formula


81. The compound of claim 80, wherein Z is optionally substituted alkyne, optionally substituted alkene, halogen, —N₃, N(R^(N))₂, OR^(O), SR^(S), or CO₂R^(O); each instance of R^(N) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or a nitrogen protecting group; each instance of R^(O) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group; and each instance of R^(S) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or a sulfur protecting group.
 82. The compound of claim 80 of formula (II-a):

or a salt thereof, wherein R^(3c) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group.
 83. The compound of claim 82 of formula (II-b):

or a salt thereof.
 84. The compound of claim 83, having a formula (II-b1):

or a salt thereof.
 85. The compound of claim 84, having a formula selected from (II-b2) and (II-b3):

wherein R^(y1) is hydrogen, halogen, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, and

or a salt thereof.
 86. The compound of claim 80 of formula (II-c):

or a salt thereof.
 87. The compound of claim 86, having a formula selected from (II-c1), (II-c2) and (II-c3):

wherein R^(y2) is hydrogen or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, and

or a salt thereof.
 88. The compound of claim 86, wherein Y is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl.
 89. The compound of claim 88, wherein Y is methyl or CF₃.
 90. The compound of claim 80, wherein R¹ is H or methyl.
 91. The compound of claim 80, wherein the F atom at the C3-position is axial.
 92. The compound of claim 80, wherein the F atom at the C3-position is equatorial.
 93. The compound of claim 80, wherein R^(3a) is —C(═O)—R^(3r), wherein R^(3r) is optionally substituted alkyl or aryl.
 94. The compound of claim 80, wherein R^(3a) is optionally substituted benzoyl.
 95. The compound of claim 80, wherein R^(3a) is CH₃CO—, C₂H₅CO—, C₃H₇CO—, t-BuCO—, CF₃CO—, PhCH₂CO—, or C₆H₅CO—.
 96. The compound of claim 80, wherein the compound is one of the following formulae:


97. A sialidase protein adduct comprising a compound of claim 80, wherein the sialidase protein is covalently conjugated to the compound.
 98. The sialidase protein adduct of claim 97, having a formula:


99. The sialidase protein adduct of claim 98, wherein the sialidase is a human, viral or bacterial sialidase.
 100. The sialidase protein adduct of claim 98, wherein the sialidase is a bacterial sialidase selected from the group consisting of nanA, nanB, nanC, nanJ, nanI, and nanH.
 101. The sialidase protein adduct of claim 98, wherein the compound is DFSA-5-yne or DFSA-7-yne.
 102. The sialidase protein adduct of claim 98, wherein the compound is covalently linked to one or more tyrosine residues within any peptide of SEQ ID NOS: 1-6, wherein the peptide is a fragment of nanA, nanB, nanC, nanJ, nanI or nanH.
 103. The sialidase protein adduct of claim 98, wherein the sialidase is an influenza virus neuraminidase (NA).
 104. The sialidase protein adduct of claim 98, wherein the sialidase is a human sialidase selected from the group consisting of Neu1, Neu2, Neu3 and Neu4.
 105. A detectable conjugate comprising a compound of claim 80, wherein the compound is covalently conjugated to a detectable tagging moiety.
 106. A detectable sialidase protein conjugate comprising a sialidase protein adduct of claim 98, wherein the sialidase protein adduct is covalently conjugated to a detectable tagging moiety.
 107. The detectable conjugate of claim 105 or detectable sialidase conjugate of claim 106, wherein the tagging moiety comprises a label.
 108. The detectable conjugate or detectable sialidase conjugate of claim 107, having a formula selected from:

or a salt thereof, wherein F atom at the C3-position is axial or equatorial; R^(K) is H, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or a protein; R² is OR^(2O), N₃, N(R^(2N))₂, or guanidine; each instance of R^(2O) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group; each instance of R^(2N) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or a nitrogen protecting group; each instance of R^(3a) and R^(3b) is independently hydrogen, —C(═O)—R^(3r), or an oxygen protecting group; each instance of R^(3r) is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, or optionally substituted heterocycle, optionally substituted alkylaryl, optionally substituted alkylheteroaryl, or optionally substituted alkylheterocycle; X is selected from the group consisting of —O—, —O(C═O)—, —NH—, —NH(C═O)—, —(C═O)NH—, —O(C═O)NH—, —O(C═S)NH—, —NH(C═O)NH—, and —NH(C═S)NH—; R^(4a) is H, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl, or an optionally substituted acyl; Y^(a) is H or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ alkyl; each instance of L is independently selected from the group consisting of —(CH₂)_(n)—, —(CH₂)_(n)C═O—, —(CH₂)_(n)NH—, —(C═O)(CH₂)_(n)—, —(CH₂)_(n)NH(C═O)—, —(C═O)(CH₂)_(n)NH(C═O)—, —(CH₂)_(n)SCH₂(C═O)—, or —(CH₂CH₂O)_(n)—; each instance of n is an integer from 1 to 8, inclusive; each instance of R^(p) and R^(q) is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted aliphatic; optionally substituted heteroaliphatic; substituted or unsubstituted aryl; optionally substituted heteroaryl; optionally substituted acyl; a resin; a protein; a reporter; a label optionally joined by a linker La, wherein the linker La is optionally substituted alkylene; optionally substituted alkenylene; optionally substituted alkynylene; optionally substituted heteroalkylene; optionally substituted heteroalkenylene; optionally substituted heteroalkynylene; optionally substituted arylene; optionally substituted heteroarylene; or optionally substituted acylene.
 109. The detectable conjugate or detectable sialidase conjugate of claim 107, wherein the label is a fluorophore.
 110. The detectable conjugate or detectable sialidase conjugate of claim 107, wherein the label is


111. A method for detecting presence of a sialidase, the method comprising: (a) contacting a sample suspected of comprising a sialidase with a compound of claim 80; (b) adding a reporter; and (c) detecting a signal, wherein presence of a signal indicates the presence of the sialidase in the sample.
 112. The method of claim 111, wherein the sialidase is intracellular.
 113. The method of claim 111, wherein the compound is PDFSA-5-yne (IV) or PDFSA-7-yne (VII):

a derivative, conjugate or ester thereof.
 114. The method of claim 111, wherein the sample is from a mammal, fowl, or fish.
 115. The method of claim 114, wherein the mammal is human.
 116. The method of claim 111 wherein the sample is suspected of containing a pathogen.
 117. The method of claim 116, wherein the pathogen is bacteria, virus, protozoa, or fungi.
 118. The method of claim 111, further comprising imaging the locations of sialidases in a cell.
 119. The method of claim 111, further comprising: (a) contacting a cell with a compound of PDFSA-5-yne (IV), PDFSA-7-yne (VII), or a derivative, or ester thereof; (b) allowing intracellular esterase to convert the compound to DFSA-5-yne (III) or DFSA-7-yne (VI) respectively; (c) allowing DFSA-5-yne (III) or DFSA-7-yne (VI) to covalently conjugate to one or more sialidases at an intracellular location in the cell; (d) adding a reporter; (e) obtaining an image of intracellular sialidase distribution.
 120. A method for determining infection by influenza virus, the method comprising: (a) contacting a test sample from a subject suspected of influenza virus infection with the compound of claim 80; (b) adding a reporter; (c) detecting a signal; wherein the presence of a signal indicates a possibility of infection by influenza virus.
 121. The method of claim 120, wherein the compound is DFSA-5-yne (II) or DFSA-7-yne (VI) or a derivative or ester thereof.
 122. The method of claim 120, wherein the influenza virus is not resistant to oseltamivir.
 123. The method of claim 120, wherein the influenza virus is sensitive to oseltamivir.
 124. The method of claim 120, wherein the influenza virus is resistant to oseltamivir. 